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With the imminent threat of climate change, there is an urgent need to understand how warmer temperatures will affect marine ecosystems. Models provide the best tools to study the future, but although great efforts have been made to understand the impacts of warming temperatures, there is still large uncertainties related to the model projections. The uncertainties can arise from structural uncertainty of the ecosystem model, uncertainties regarding climate projections, or uncertainties related to how species will respond to future climate changes. In this thesis, we therefore apply ecosystem models of varying complexity, climate models of varying resolution and climate projections under various emission scenarios to understand and quantify uncertainty. By assessing the uncertainty, we highlight consistent results that suggest higher confidence, and areas where differences in the results suggest that more research is needed. The results from this thesis are divided into three research papers. The first paper deals with structural uncertainty regarding model complexity, as we explore the role of Northeast Atlantic cod (Gadus Morhua) in the Barents Sea food web by using a multi-model approach. We apply two ecosystem models of different complexity; the minimalistic Gompertz model and the highly complex Atlantis model, to study how capelin and polar cod respond to changing levels of cod. We highlight consistent results across the models and identify diverging results due to differences in spatial structure and number of foodweb components, and conclude that for fishery management purposes, the two models can complement each other. The second paper deals with uncertainty regarding the resolution of climate projections used to force ecosystem models, where we apply physics (temperature, salinity, volume transport and sea ice) from a regional model (Nemo-NAA10km) and its driving global climate model (NorESM2) to the Nordic and Barents Seas Atlantis ecosystem model (NoBa). We found that few higher trophic level (TL>3) species were affected by using forcing from a global versus a regional model, and there was a general agreement in future biomass trends and distribution patterns. Yet, our results showed how a slight difference in temperature can have dramatic consequences for specific species and demonstrate that species projection uncertainty could arise from poor representation of the physical forcing, as well as due to uncertainty in the ecosystem model parameterization. In the third and final paper, we deal with the uncertainty regarding ecosystem responses to future climate changes. We apply physics from three different climate projections (SPP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5) to study the impact of rising temperatures in the Nordic and Barents Seas using NoBa. To account for uncertainty in the response of phytoplankton and zooplankton to future climate change, we included variation in phyto- and zooplankton growth levels. We identify potential winners and losers in a warming climate and focus on the underlying mechanisms that drives the changes in the model, including spatial differences, thermal tolerance, and species interactions. Through our work we have demonstrated the value of using ecosystem models of varying complexity, climate models of varying resolution and climate projections under various emission scenarios to quantify uncertainty regarding model projections. By investigating uncertainty along these three axes, we learn more about the models and the mechanisms that drives the changes and provide valuable insight for management and future ecosystem studies. Med klimaendringer som en overhengende trussel, er det et stort og økende behov for å forstå hvordan varmere temperaturer vil påvirke marine økosystemer. Modeller er et av de viktigste verktøyene for å studere hvordan utviklingen vil bli, men selv om stor innsats har blitt lagt ned for å forstå konsekvenser av varmere temperaturer, er det fortsatt stor usikkerhet knyttet til modell-projeksjonene. Usikkerheten kan skyldes strukturell usikkerhet i økosystemmodellene, usikkerhet knyttet til klimaprognoser eller usikkerhet knyttet til hvordan ulike arter vil reagere på fremtidige klimaendringer. I denne oppgaven bruker vi derfor økosystemmodeller med varierende kompleksitet, klimamodeller med varierende oppløsning og ulike klimascenarier for å belyse denne usikkerheten. På den måten kan vi rapportere resultater som samsvarer med høyere pålitelighet, og påpeke forskjeller i resultatene som tilsier at det vil være behov for mer forskning. Resultatene fra denne avhandlingen er delt inn i tre forskningsartikler. Den første artikkelen omhandler strukturell usikkerhet knyttet til modellkompleksitet. Ved å benytte to modeller av ulik kompleksitet (den minimalistiske Gompertz-modellen og den svært komplekse Atlantis-modellen) gransker vi rollen til nordøstatlantisk torsk (Gadus Morhua) i Barentshavet ved å studere hvordan lodde og polartorsk reagerer på endrede nivåer av torsk. Vi synliggjør samsvarende resultater på tvers av modellene og identifiserer divergerende resultater som oppstår på grunn av forskjeller i romlig struktur og antall økosystem-komponenter. Konklusjonene våre er at fiskeriforvaltningen kan dra nytte av å bruke flere modeller, og at de to modellene utfyller hverandre. Den andre artikkelen omhandler usikkerhet rundt oppløsningen av klimamodellene, og i hvilken grad høy oppløsning av fysikken er nødvendig for å studere effekter i økosystemmodeller. Her bruker vi fysikk (temperatur, saltholdighet, volumtransport og havis) fra en regional modell (Nemo-NAA10km) og dens drivende globale klimamodell (NorESM2) i en Atlantis modell (NoBa) for de Nordiske hav og Barentshavet. Resultatene viste at få arter på høyere trofisk nivå (TL>3) ble påvirket av å bruke fysikk fra en global versus en regional modell, og at det var en generell enighet om fremtidige biomassetrender og distribusjonsmønstre. Likevel så vi hvordan selv små temperaturforskjeller kan ha dramatiske konsekvenser for enkelte arter, og hvordan slike forskjeller kan oppstå både med utgangspunkt i usikkerhet rundt fysikken, samt usikkerheter i hvordan modellen representerer artenes temperaturtoleranse. I det tredje og siste artikkelen studerer vi usikkerheten knyttet til påvirkning av fremtidige klimaendringer på økosystemet i de Nordiske hav og i Barentshavet. Ved å anvende av tre ulike klimascenarier (SPP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5 og SSP5-8.5) studerer vi hvordan økende temperaturer vil påvirke artene i NoBa-modellen. For å ta høyde for usikkerhet i fremtidige nivåer av plante- og dyreplankton, inkluderte vi variasjon i disse gruppene. Fokus i studien ligger på de underliggende mekanismene som driver endringene i modellen, og vi identifiserer potensielle vinnere og tapere i et varmere klima. I denne avhandlingen fremhever vi verdien av å bruke økosystemmodeller av varierende kompleksitet, klimamodeller med varierende oppløsning og ulike utslippsscenarier for å håndtere usikkerhet i modellene våre. Ved å undersøke usikkerhet langs disse tre aksene lærer vi mer om modellene og mekanismene som driver endringene, samt gir verdifull innsikt for forvaltning og fremtidige økosystemstudier.

Numerical models of ecological systems are increasingly used by scientists to address complex environmental questions. One challenge for scientists, managers, and stakeholders is to appraise the performance of these models to answer specific questions of scientific or societal relevance, that is to perform, communicate or access transparent evaluations of ecological models. While there have been substantial developments to support standardised descriptions of ecological models, less has been done to standardise and to report model evaluation practices. We present here a general protocol designed to guide the reporting of model evaluation. The protocol is organised in three major parts: the objective(s) of the modelling application, the ecological patterns of relevance and the evaluation methodology proper, and is termed the OPE (objectives, patterns, evaluation) protocol. We present the 25 questions of the OPE protocol which address the many aspects of the evaluation process and then apply them to six case studies based on a diversity of ecological models. In addition to standardising and increasing the transparency of the model evaluation process, we find that going through the OPE protocol helps modellers to think more deeply about the evaluation of their models. From this last point, we suggest that it would be highly beneficial for modellers to consider the OPE early in the modelling process, in addition to using it as a reporting tool and as a reviewing tool., The published version of this article is available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2022.110059

I denne mastergradsoppgaven har jeg undersøkt holdningene til nynorsk som sidemål blant elever på 9. og 10. trinn i kyststrøkene i Finnmark. Problemstillingen min er: Hvordan kan norsklærere påvirke elevenes holdninger til nynorsk som sidemål? For å få svar på problemstillingen, har jeg brukt metodene spørreundersøkelse og fokusgruppeintervju. Spørreundersøkelsen ble gjennomført med et utvalg elever og lærere, og fokusgruppeintervjuet med 6 elever bygget på denne spørreundersøkelsen. Jeg har ikke funnet noen negative språklige ideologier blant elevene mot nynorskbrukeren eller språket nynorsk, og elevene mener vi må skille mellom holdningene til nynorsk som skriftspråk, og nynorsk som sidemål. De negative holdningene de har, er rettet mot nynorsk som sidemål, som kan komme av sidemålsundervisningen. Elevene savner gode begrunnelser for hvorfor de skal lære nynorsk på skolen, og mener begrunnelser, varierte undervisningsopplegg, egen arbeidsinnsats og motiverte og motiverende lærere er de viktigste faktorene for at de skal lære seg å lese og skrive nynorsk. Å videreformidle de språklige og kognitive fordelene ved å lære seg sidemålet på skolen, samt bruke kystfinnmarksdialekten som støtte i nynorskundervisningen, kan påvirke ferdighetene og holdningene elevene har til nynorsk som sidemål. Elevene i intervjuet påpeker at å lære seg samisk har større verdi enn å lære seg nynorsk fordi vi bor i et område med nær tilknytning til det samiske.

To meet the objectives of the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries, “Balanced Harvesting” (BH) has been suggested as a possible strategy to ensure a high sustainable yield while maintaining ecosystem structure and function. BH proposes a moderate fishing mortality in proportion to productivity spread across the widest possible range of species, stocks, and sizes in an ecosystem. The intent is a sustainable and overall unselective harvest that reduces alterations to the ecosystem structure by maintaining the relative size and species composition, while increasing total yield. The Norwegian and Barents Seas have been subjected to moderate fishing pressure and elements of an ecosystem-based approach to management for many years. By using a pre-parameterized Atlantis ecosystem model of the Nordic and Barents Seas, we investigated the ecosystem effects of a BH regime. This was done by running simulations with combinations of historic fishing pressure and fishing mortality rates proportional to 25% of the productivity of selected species. The simulations were then compared to a control run where the historical fisheries were applied. The model results imply that implementing a BH regime in the Norwegian and Barents Seas would only produce marginal increases in total yields of commercially exploited stocks, possibly because the Norwegian fisheries already is fairly balanced. The inclusion of non-commercial species in the harvest, on both lower and higher trophic levels, caused unexpectedly drastic changes to the ecosystem in the form of stock collapses or severely changed biomass levels. This study represents the first attempted examination of implementing balanced harvesting based on productivity, using an Atlantis ecosystem model. Masteroppgave i biologi MAMN-BIO BIO399

Avhandlinga undersøker hvordan tre norsklærere på ungdomstrinnet arbeider med kompetansemålet: Eleven skal kunne utforske språklig variasjon og mangfold i Norge og reflektere over holdninger til ulike språk og talespråksvarianter (Utdanningsdirektoratet, 2020d). Studien baserer seg på en kvalitativ, semistrukturert intervjustudie med tre lærere. Oppgavens problemstilling: Hvordan beskriver et utvalg norsklærere undervisningen sin om språklig mangfold i ungdomsskolen, og hvordan vurderer de elevenes læringsutbytte? For å bryte ned denne overordnede problemstillingen inneholder oppgaven tre forskningsspørsmål. Det første omhandler hvordan lærerne fortolker kompetansemålet; utforske språklig variasjon og mangfold i Norge og reflektere over holdninger til ulike språk og talespråksvarianter. Det andre tar for seg hvordan lærerne underviser for at elevene skal nå det det aktuelle kompetansemålet. Det siste forskningsspørsmålet handler om hvordan lærerne vurderer elevenes læringsutbytte I dette kompetansemålet. Problemstillingen og forskningsspørsmålene besvares ved å analysere informantenes uttalelser, sett i lys av teoretiske perspektiv knyttet til oppgavens tematikk. Metodene som er brukt finner sin inspirasjon fra blant annet Grønmo (2016), Kvarv (2021) og Christoffersen & Johannesen (2012). I analysen og drøftingen er teori om dialektologi og sosiolingvistikk sentralt. Jeg ser særlig til Eckert (2003), Quist (2017), Johnstone (2010) i arbeidet med de ulike tradisjonene. I forlengelsene av disse tradisjonene har jeg sett til blant annet Hårstad (2010) og Holmvik (2019) sine tidligere studier for å illustrere hvordan lærebøker kan påvirke læreres undervisningspraksis. For kunnskap om læreplaner har jeg støttet meg til Goodlad (1979). Analysen viser at lærerne har en ulike forståelse av hva det vil si å utforske. Den ene informanten vektlegger i større grad det praktisk-estetiske aspektet ved utforsking, enn de to andre. Analysen viser også lærerne i stor grad lener seg på den sosiolingvistiske forskningstradisjonen. Lærerne ønsker at elevene reflektere over språkets sosiale betydningspotensiale, og sammenhengen mellom språk, kropp og sted. Analysen viser også at lærerne er begrenser bruken av lærebøkene i arbeid med språklig mangfold. I tillegg kommer det fram at lærerne er opptatt av å vurdere elevene kontinuerlig og variert. In this study thesis I explore how three teachers in secondary school argue for their teaching methods and evaluation linguistics diversity, variety and attitudes. How does the teachers facilitate for exploration and reflection? The study is based on a qualitatively interview with three teachers. The thesis targets the following research problem: How three selected teachers teach about the term linguistic diversity, variety and attitudes, and how do they evaluate the pupils learning outcomes. In addition, the thesis contains three research questions. On the first question I examine how the teachers interpret current competence aims that consist of linguistic terms. On the second question I look at how the teachers express their teaching methods at in didactic perspective. The third and last question is about how the teachers evaluate the pupils´ learning outcomes related to this competence goal. The research problem and the research questions are answered with qualitative interviews with three teachers. The methodology is particularly inspired by Grønmo (2016), Kvarv (2021) and Christoffersen & Johannesen (2012). Dialectological and sociolinguistic theory has been important in the analysis, and I have relied on theory and terms from Eckert (2003), Quist (2017), Johnstone (2010) in the process of seprarating the different research questions from each other. The theory about curriculum is primarily based on Goodlad (1979). The analysis show that the teachers have a different understanding of what the verb «exploring» contains. One of the teachers emphasizez the practical understanding of what exploring means, increasingly than the other two. The study also show that the teachers are leaning on the sociolinguistic tradition when they teach pupils about linguistic terms. All the informants emphasizes that the pupils are able to reflect of the potential meaning different linguistic varieties could have, but also how many people connect language, body and place. However, this study shows that the informants don’t base their teaching lessons on their when they teaching about linguistic diversity, variety and attitude. Evaluation of what the pupils have learned, the study show the teachers are evaluating them continually and by different methods.

Obtained results significantly extend our perception about cross education phenomenon, or phenomenon of contralateral strength training effects. Contralateral training effects are relevant and these results could provide the implementation potential in many areas, especially in the field of physical medicine, rehabilitation, prevention of falls and injuries. The results of this study show that unilateral concentric strengths training of lower extremities improve balance of ipsilateral leg for 35 %, and contralateral for more than 15 %. The results of this study are in accordance with the study from 2011. [9]. These results suggest that contralateral training with unilateral hip isokinetic exercise increases one-legged standing balance of the contralateral limb. In our research were trained muscles that surround the joints relevant for one-legged standing balance. For example, one of important postural strategies in balance preservation is so-called Strategy of ankle joint [5]. According to this Strategy, human body is rotating around ankle joint by principle of the reverse pendulum, therefore ; it stands to a reason, that training of strengths muscles that surround ankle joints significantly improves stability and upright standing balance. The results of t-test for dependent samples showed that there is no statistically significant difference in BALANCE test of dominant and undominant leg between groups in Pre testing. For this reason, statistically significant changes in the ipsilateral and contralateral single leg balance between Pre and Post testing (Table 1.) attributed to the effects of training program. Subjects. 30 young, healthy, and physically active women (age: 21 yrs., mass: 60 kg, height: 67 cm, percent body fat: 26%) were randomly allocated to one of two groups: 1) control group (n=15), 2) experimental group (n=15). Training program. The training program consisted of unilateral concentric contractions of knee extensors and flexors, and ankle dorsi and plantar flexors and it was performed on isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex System 3, Biodex Corporation, Shirley, NY). The training velocity was 60°/s for knee, and 30°/s for ankle. Over the 4-week program the training volume increased progressively with the increase in sets number, starting first with two (first training), then three (from second to fifth training) and finally with four sets (from 6th to 12th training). Testing procedure. Each participant was tested on two occasions: 1) prior to commencement of training (Pre), and 2) one week after the completion of the 4-week training period (Post). The testing procedure included one-legged standing balance measurement, followed by leg strength (i.e. muscle function) measurement. One - legged standing balance. Single-limb postural stability was assessed on a Biodex Stability System, level 5 (Biodex, Shirley, New York, USA). BSS was used in a numerous of studies before (1, 13, 15, 16, 9). The measures of dynamic balance included overall stability index scores (OSI). The OSI represents the variance of foot-platform displacement in degrees from a level position, in all motions during a test. A high stability score indicates poor balance. Data analyses. Pre and Post training Means and SDs were calculated for ipsilateral (trained) and contralateral (untrained) one – legged standing balance in both group. T-test for independent (EXP – CON) and dependent (Pre-Post) samples was set at p < 0, 01.