Search

Hydrogen has been identified as one of the key elements to bolster longer-term climate neutrality and strategic autonomy for several major countries. Multiple road maps emphasize the need to accelerate deployment across its supply chain and utilization. Being one of the major contributors to global CO2 emissions, the transportation sector finds in hydrogen an appealing alternative to reach sustainable development through either its direct use in fuel cells or further transformation to sustainable fuels. This review summarizes the latest developments in hydrogen use across the major energy-consuming transportation sectors. Rooted in a systems engineering perspective, we present an analysis of the entire hydrogen supply chain across its economic, environmental, and social dimensions. Providing an outlook on the sector, we discuss the challenges hydrogen faces in penetrating the different transportation markets.

The thematic area studied in this paper considers environmental issues such as atmospheric pollution from the combustion of fossil fuels, and the environmental impacts from the generation of urban agricultural solid wastes. This study has estimated the potential for hydrogen and biogas production from solid urban waste (SUW) and wine waste from Bento Goncalves, which is a region in Brazil with the largest wine throughput and subsequent waste generation, thus providing a potential high-energy feedstock. The resulting hydrogen and biogas are assumed to displace the existing fuels in the local bus fleet. The analytical work consisted of three scenarios - scenario 1: production of biogas using SUW, sourced exclusively from the municipality of Bento Goncalves; Scenario 2: the possibility to supply SUW from Bento Goncalves and surrounding cities, to produce biogas; Scenario 3: the possibility to use wine waste and SUW for biogas production. Scenario 3 showed the greatest energy yield with 37.9 Gg of biomethane produced per year, which can supply the entire public bus fleet of Bento Goncalves. The resulting hydrogen production potential using steam reforming of biomethane is 1.09 E+08 Nm3H2.d−1 which can generate 2.62 TW h.year−1 of electrical energy, avoiding approximate emissions of 355 ktonCO2.year−1. These findings indicate value in the production of biogas from urban and agricultural wastes, especially for the generation of methane, hydrogen and useful energy outputs. Its production from renewable and clean sources contributes to the gradual transformation of an economy currently dependent on non-renewable resources into a circular and renewable economy.

Correction for ‘A comparative analysis of the efficiency, timing, and permanence of CO2 removal pathways’ by Solene Chiquier et al., Energy Environ. Sci., 2022, 15, 4389–4403, https://doi.org/10.1039/D2EE01021F.

For hydrogen to play a meaningful role in a sustainable energy system, all elements of the value chain must scale coherently. Advocates support electrolytic (green) hydrogen or (blue) hydrogen that relies on methane reformation with carbon capture and storage, however, efforts to definitively choose how to deliver this scaling up are premature. For blue hydrogen, methane emissions must be minimised. Best in class supply chain management in combination with high rates of CO2 capture can deliver a low carbon hydrogen product. In the case of electrolytic hydrogen, the carbon intensity of power needs to be very low for this to be a viable alternative to blue hydrogen. Until the electricity grid is deeply decarbonised, there is an opportunity cost associated with using renewable energy to produce hydrogen, as opposed to integrating this with the power system. To have a realistic chance of success, net zero transition pathways need to be formulated in a way that is coherent with socio-political-economic constraints.

In comparison with the power sector, large scale decarbonisation of heat has received relatively little attention at the infrastructural scale despite its importance in the global CO2 emissions landscape. In this study we focus on the regional transition of a heating sector from natural gas-based infrastructure to H2 using mathematical optimisation. A discrete spatio-temporal description of the geographical region of Great Britain was used in addition to a detailed description of all network elements for illustrating the key factors in the design of nation-wide H2 and CO2 infrastructure. We have found that the synergistic deployment of H2 production technologies such as autothermal reforming of methane, and biomass gasification with CO2 abatement technologies such as carbon capture and storage (CCS) are critical in achieving cost-effective decarbonisation. We show that both large scale underground H2 storage and water electrolysis provide resilience and flexibility to the heating system, competing on cost and deployment rates. The optimal regions for siting H2 production infrastructure are characterised by proximity to: (1) underground H2 storage, (2) high demands for H2, (3) geological storage for CO2. Furthermore, cost-effective transitions based on a methane reforming pathway may necessitate regional expansions in the supply of natural gas with profound implications for security of supply in nations that are already highly reliant, potentially creating an infrastructure lock-in during the near term. We found that the total system cost, comprising both investment and operational elements, is mostly influenced by the natural gas price, followed by biomass price and CapEx of underground caverns. Under a hybrid Regulated Asset Base (RAB) commercial framework, with private enterprises delivering production infrastructure, the total cost of heat supply over the infrastructure lifetime is estimated as 5.2–8.6 pence per kW h. Due to the higher cost relative to natural gas, a Contract for Difference payment between £20 per MW h and £53 per MW h will be necessary for H2-derived heat to be competitive in the market.

This paper addresses the decarbonisation of the heavy-duty transport sector and develops a strategy towards net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in heavy-goods vehicles (HGVs) by 2040. By conducting a literature review and a case study on the vehicle fleet of a large UK food and consumer goods retailer, the feasibilities of four alternative vehicle technologies are evaluated from environmental, economic, and technical perspectives. Socio-political factors and commercial readiness are also examined to capture non-technical criteria that influences decision-makers. Strategic analysis frameworks such as PEST-SWOT models were developed for liquefied natural gas, biomethane, electricity and hydrogen to allow a holistic comparison and identify their long-term deployment potential. Fossil and renewable natural gas are found to be effective transitional solutions. Technology innovation is needed to address range and payload limitations of electric trucks, whereas government and industry support are essential for a material deployment of hydrogen in the 2030s. Given the UK government’s plan to phase out new diesel HGVs by 2040, fleet operators should commence new vehicle trials by 2025 and replace a considerable amount of their lighter diesel trucks with zero-emission vehicles by 2030, and the remaining heavier truck fleet by 2035.

Hydrogen can be used to enable decarbonisation of challenging applications such as provision of heat, and as a fuel for heavy transport. The UK has set out a strategy for developing a new low carbon hydrogen sector by 2030. Underground storage will be a key component of any regional or national hydrogen network because of the variability of both supply and demand across different end-use applications. For storage of pure hydrogen, salt caverns currently remain the only commercially proven subsurface storage technology implemented at scale. A new network of hydrogen storage caverns will therefore be required to service a low carbon hydrogen network. To facilitate planning for such systems, this study presents a modelling approach used to evaluate the UK's theoretical hydrogen storage capacity in new salt caverns in bedded rock salt. The findings suggest an upper bound potential for hydrogen storage exceeding 64 million tonnes, providing 2150 TWh of storage capacity, distributed in three discrete salt basins in the UK. The modelled cavern capacity has been interrogated to identify the practical inter-seasonal storage capacity suitable for integration in a hydrogen transmission system. Depending on cavern spacing, a peak load deliverability of between 957 and 1876 GW is technically possible with over 70% of the potential found in the East Yorkshire and Humber region. The range of geologic uncertainty affecting the estimates is approximately ±36%. In principle, the peak domestic heating demand of approximately 170 GW across the UK can be met using the hydrogen withdrawn from caverns alone, albeit in practice the storage potential is unevenly distributed. The analysis indicates that the availability of salt cavern storage potential does not present a limiting constraint for the development of a low-carbon hydrogen network in the UK. The general framework presented in this paper can be applied to other regions to estimate region-specific hydrogen storage potential in salt caverns.

Biomass is recognized as an ideal CO2neutral, abundant, and renewable resource substitute to fossil fuels. The rich proton content in most biomass derived materials, such as ethanol, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and glycerol allows it to be an effective hydrogen carrier. The oxidation derivatives, such as 2,5-difurandicarboxylic acid from HMF, glyceric acid from glycerol are valuable products to be used in biodegradable polymers and pharmaceuticals. Therefore, combining biomass-derived compound oxidation at the anode and hydrogen evolution reaction at the cathode in a biomass electrolysis or photo-reforming reactor would present a promising strategy for coproducing high value chemicals and hydrogen with low energy consumption and CO2emissions. This review aims to combine fundamental knowledge on photo and electro-assisted catalysis to provide a comprehensive understanding of the general reaction mechanisms of different biomass-derived molecule oxidation. At the same time, catalyst requirements and recent advances for various feedstock compounds are also reviewed in detail. Technoeconomic assessment and life cycle analysis are performed on various feedstocks to assess the relative benefits of various processes, and finally critical prospects are given on the challenges and opportunities for technology development to meet the sustainability requirement of the future global energy economy.

Development of hydrogen and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in the United Kingdom is investigated for the UK by research in the ELEGANCY Project to accelerate carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions reduction. Industry plans and concepts including large-scale production of hydrogen with CCS (H2-CCS) are used to estimate the potential magnitude and rate of CO2 supply for the Grangemouth and Teesside industrial sites. Annual emissions reductions from these two sites by CCS operations could exceed 30 million tonnes (Mt) by 2035 and 50 Mt by 2045. Implementation of carbon-negative technologies would increase these estimated reductions. The application of the H2-CCS chain tool to Great Britain has identified the resource and technology needs for scaling up the H2 economy. It has also highlighted challenges to overcome such as the increased costs, magnitude of H2 and CO2 storage requirements, reduction in upstream emissions, etc. Importantly, there is an urgent need for policy makers, regulators, suppliers, and consumers to coordinate their efforts to achieve timely progress towards net-zero in a socially responsible manner. An application of the business model and business case assessment methodology and tools to the delivery of large-scale H2-CCS infrastructure for decarbonising residential heating in the north of England is presented. A resulting high-level system business model which allows the removal of the investment barriers and addresses major business risks to investment is defined through realistic risk allocation and collaboration between the public and private sectors. A conceptual business case is articulated with a strategic rationale consistent with support for UK energy system decarbonisation and the UK government’s legal 2050 net-zero emissions target. Recommendations for achieving the first phase of infrastructure development ensuring low regrets outcomes and flexible real options are described.

In this paper, results from comprehensive thermoeconomic assessments of small-scale solar organic Rankine cycle (ORC) systems are presented based on weather data in London, UK, which is taken as representative of a temperate climate with modest temperature changes, mild winters and moderate summers. The assessments consider a range of: (i) solar collector types (flat-plate, evacuated-tube, and evacuated flat-plate collectors); (ii) power cycle configurations (basic/recuperative, partial/full evaporating, and subcritical/transcritical cycles); (iii) expander types (scroll, screw, and piston) and designs; and (iv) a set of suitable working fluids. All possible solar-ORC system designs are optimised by considering simultaneously key parameters in the solar field and in the power cycle in order to obtain the highest electricity generation, from which the best-performing systems are identified. Selected designs are then subjected to detailed, annual simulations considering the systems’ operation, explicitly considering off-design performance under actual varying weather conditions. The results indicate that, among all investigated designs, solar-ORC systems based on the subcritical recuperative ORC (SRORC), evacuated flat-plate collectors (EFPCs), a piston expander, and isobutane as the working fluid outperforms all the other system designs on thermodynamic performance, whilst having the highest annual electricity generation of 1,100 kW·h/year (73 kW·h/year/m2) and an overall thermal efficiency of 5.5%. This system also leads to the best economic performance with a levelised cost of energy (LCOE) of ~1 $/kW·h. Apart from the specific weather data used for these detailed system simulations, this study also proceeds to consider a wider range of climates associated with other global regions by varying the solar resource available to the system. Interestingly, it is found that the optimal solar-ORC system design remains unchanged for different conditions, however, the LCOE can drop below 0.35 $/kW·h and payback times can be shorter than 16 years in high solar-resource regions, even in the absence of incentives that would otherwise lead to even better economic performance. This work complements previous efforts in the literature by considering the full design and operational features of solar-ORC systems, thereby providing valuable guidance for selecting appropriate cycle configurations, components, working fluids and other characteristics and, for the first time, presents a comprehensive comparison of such systems in small-scale applications.

Activated carbons (ACs) show great potential for selective adsorption removal of sulfur (SARS) from hydrocarbon fuels but require improvements in uptake and selectivity. Moreover, systematic equilibria and kinetic analyses of ACs for desulfurization are still lacking. This work examines the influence of modifying a commercial-grade activated carbon (AC) by CO2 and steam treatment for the selective adsorption removal of dibenzothiophene (DBT) and 4,6-dimethyldibenzothiophene (4,6-DMDBT) at 323 K. An untreated AC and a charcoal Norit carbon (CN) were used for comparative purposes. Physicochemical characterization of the samples was carried out by combining N2-physisorption, X-ray diffractometry, microscopy, thermogravimetric and infrared analyses. The steam and CO2 treated ACs exhibited higher sulfur uptakes than the untreated AC and CN samples. The steam treated AC appears to be especially effective to remove sulfur, showing a remarkable sulfur uptake (~24 mgS·gads−1 from a mixture of 1500 ppmw of DBT and 1500 ppm 4,6-DMDBT) due to an increased surface area and microporosity. The modified ACs showed similar capacities for both DBT and the sterically hindered 4,6-DMDBT molecules. In addition, they were found to be selective in the presence of sulfur-free aromatics and showed good multicycle stability. Compared to other adsorbents, the modified ACs exhibited relatively high adsorption capacities. The combination of batch and fixed bed measurements revealed that the adsorption sites of the samples are characterized as heterogeneous due to the better fit to the Freundlich isotherm. The kinetic breakthrough profiles were described by the linear driving force (LDF) model.

Carbon capture and storage is widely recognised as a promising technology for decarbonising the energy and industrial sector. An integrated assessment of technological options is required for effective deployment of large-scale infrastructures between the nodes of production and sequestration of CO2. Additionally, design challenges due to uncertainties in the effective storage availability of sequestration basins must be tackled for the optimal planning of long-lived infrastructure. The objective of this study is to quantify the financial risks arising from geological uncertainties in European supply chain networks, whilst also providing a tool for minimising storage risk exposure. For this purpose, a methodological approach utilising mixed integer linear optimisation is developed and subsequent analysis demonstrates that risks arising from geological volumes are negligible compared to the overall network costs (always

Carbon capture and storage is considered a key option for decarbonising the energy sector. However, both the necessity of deploying large-scale infrastructures between the nodes of production and sequestration of CO2, and the uncertainty related to the effective storage availability of sequestration basins still represent major challenges. Here, a mixed integer linear programming approach is proposed for the optimisation of a European supply chain model for carbon capture, transport, and storage. A quantitative assessment of storage uncertainty is incorporated to represent the volumetric capacity of basins to date considered capable of efficiently trapping the anthropogenic CO2 emissions (i.e., deep saline aquifers, hydrocarbon fields and coal fields). The objective is to minimise the total expected cost required to install and operate, over a 10 years’ time horizon, the overall network for carbon capture, transport and storage, while also taking into account the financial risk that is generated by uncertainty in geological capacity. The model defines economically optimal European supply chains, whilst simultaneously minimising the financial risk generated by uncertainty in local sequestration availability to ensure a robust design.

Hydrogen (H2) is one of the most important raw materials in the chemical and refinery industries. H2 is also regarded as a future “energy vector” due to its potential to act as an ultraclean fuel in the heat, power, and transport sectors. Therefore, development of efficient, low carbon routes to produce H2 is essential to meet its current and growing demand. In particular, this has placed an imperative on improving the efficiency of steam reforming of hydrocarbons (SRH), this process being considered the most feasible and economic route to large scale H2 production. The water gas shift reaction (WGS) is one of the most important stages of SRH, but is equilibrium limited and requires improvements in energy efficiency. In this study, we demonstrate that the overall efficiency of the WGS can be improved by removing CO2 in situ and co-feeding alcohols such as methanol and ethanol. The feasibility of this novel concept is investigated by conducting thermodynamic analyses of the alcohol reforming/WGS (alcohol-to-shift) reactions for H2 production alone and with simultaneous CO2 adsorption (sorption-enhanced, SEalcohol-to-shift). To this end, a non-stoichiometric approach based on the minimisation of the Gibbs free energy is used. The results show that adding alcohols to the feed facilitates autothermal operation of the shift unit and significantly increases the amount of H2 produced. The H2 productivity can be further enhanced by adsorbing CO2 in situ. The theoretical studies presented here are carried out under relevant operating conditions for SRH and aim to serve as a guideline for future work on alcohol-to-shift processes enhanced by adsorption.

FOZCIL (Framework for Object Z Conversion to Implementation Language) captures and implements language-independent features as the fixed part of a framework, and language-dependent properties as the extensible part of a framework. Once the framework has accepted the language-dependent features of a target OO language, it generates a FOZCIL tool instance. The tool instance is capable of accepting Object-Z specifications and of converting those specifications to skeletal code with dynamically-checkable design contracts written in that target language. This provides a significant improvement over existing tools that are custom built to provide automatic conversion from Object-Z only to a specific implementation language. FOZCIL streamlines the process of developing both the reusual language-independent portions and the language dependent portions of such tools.

Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is essential to deliver the climate objectives of the Paris Agreement. Whilst several CDR pathways have been identified, they vary significantly in terms of CO2 removal efficiency, elapsed time between their deployment and effective CO2 removal, and CO2 removal permanence. All these criteria are critical for the commercial-scale deployment of CDR. In this study, we evaluate a set of archetypal CDR pathways—including afforestation/reforestation (AR), bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), biochar, direct air capture of CO2 with storage (DACCS) and enhanced weathering (EW)—through this lens. We present a series of thought experiments, considering different climates and forest types for AR, land types, e.g. impacting biomass yield and (direct and indirect) land use change, and biomass types for BECCS and biochar, capture processes for DACCS, and rock types for EW. Results show that AR can be highly efficient in delivering CDR, up to 95–99% under optimal conditions. However, regional bio-geophysical factors, such as the near-term relatively slow and limited forest growth in cold climates, or the long-term exposure to natural disturbances, e.g. wildfires in warm and dry climates, substantially reduces the overall CO2 removal efficiency of AR. Conversely, BECCS delivers immediate and permanent CDR, but its CO2 removal efficiency can be significantly impacted by any initial carbon debt associated with (direct and indirect) land use change, and thereby significantly delayed. Biochar achieves low CDR efficiency, in the range of 20–39% when it is first integrated with the soil, and that regardless of the biomass feedstock considered. Moreover, its CO2 removal efficiency can decrease to −3 to 5% with time, owing to the decay of biochar. Finally, as for BECCS, DACCS and EW deliver permanent CO2 removal, but their CO2 removal efficiencies are substantially characterized by the energy system within which they are deployed, in the range of −5 to 90% and 17–92%, respectively, if currently deployed. However, the CDR efficiency of EW can increase to 51–92% with time, owing to the carbonation rate of EW.