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Additional file 1: Table S1. Odds ratios of living alone in Japan 1990–2016. Table S2. Odds ratios of living alone in Sweden 1990–2016.

The main object of this study is to investigate the relationship between individuals’ health status and labor participation among middle-aged and elderly males in Japan using a unique panel dataset. Our analysis focuses on three types of health indicators based on respondents’ medical history in the three years preceding the survey. To adjust for the potential endogeneity of the health variables, we use individuals’ body mass index at age 30 and their parents’ medical history as instrumental variables. Our empirical results show that a deterioration in health increases the probability of not working and being retired and, moreover, tends to decrease individuals’ average working hours per week. Further, splitting our sample, we find that, compared with males under 60 years of age, the work status of males aged 60 or over is significantly more likely to be affected by having one additional illness and suffering from a lifestyle disease than that of under 60s.

This paper examines how class closures affect the academic achievements of Japanese students in primary and middle schools, with a special focus on the heterogeneous effects of the socioeconomic backgrounds of students' households. Utilizing the administrative data of students from a city in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area, we estimated the effects of class closures due to flu epidemics, on the students' language and math test scores. We find that class closures adversely affect math test scores of economically disadvantaged students. The magnitudes of the negative effects on disadvantaged students are heterogeneous by subject, grade in school, gender, timing of class closures, and students' achievements at the beginning of the school year. Male students from economically disadvantaged households are more susceptible to class closures, and those with relatively low achievements before class closures suffer more seriously from them. The deleterious effects among economically disadvantaged male students are driven not only by reductions in class hours in school, but also by increases in time spent watching TV and playing video games. We also find that school resources can mitigate the negative impact of class closure among economically disadvantaged students. These results indicate the importance of public programs in preventing a negative temporal shock to student learning environments.

Additional file 2: Additional Table 1. Trends of the proportion of in-hospital deaths, by cause of death and care need levels.

Additional file 1: Additional Figure 1. Trends of the proportion of in-hospital deaths of those in care need levels 1-2 in the month before death (n= 729,847). Additional Figure 2. Trends of the proportion of in-hospital deaths of those in care need levels 3-5 in the month before death (n= 2,190,002). Additional Figure 3. Age-adjusted odds ratios for in-hospital deaths of those living at home in the month before death (n= 1,947,489). Additional Figure 4. Age-adjusted odds ratios for in-hospital deaths of long-term care health facility residents in the month before death (n= 383,522). Additional Figure 5. Age-adjusted odds ratios for in-hospital deaths of long-term care welfare facility residents in the month before death (n= 588,838).