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This study describes an attempt to develop an integrative model of reciprocity, specifically as it is used in the organizational behavior field. Three issues have been identified in the literature: (i) the overlap of different meanings for existing taxonomy of the norm of reciprocity; (ii) an underestimation of some aspects of reciprocity; and (iii) imprecise descriptions and predictions of constructs and behaviors inside the organizations. A systematic and rigorous literature review of the designated manuscripts is performed. Nine organizational constructs that use the norm of reciprocity as a critical mechanism to explain social relationships within the workplace have been identified. A comprehensive classification for the notion and features of reciprocity is offered, which helps deliver a precise and novel map of the field. Moreover, it isolates three main distinctions, namely contents of the acts that are given and received; the type of exchange; and the subjects to whom reciprocity is directed, offering a novel interpretative framework of the norm of reciprocity. This research tries to overcome the ambiguity that characterizes how reciprocity is defined, classified, and used in the organizational behaviors field. Finally, it analyzes how different organizational behavior constructs use the different notions and features of reciprocity. This endeavor helps to create a precise map of the field of organizational behavior through a novel framework highlighting underdeveloped areas for future research attention.

Purpose The adverse effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have opened the door to investigations of the leadership practices needed to guarantee positive work-related outcomes among employees in organizations. Therefore, building on the norm of reciprocity, this research aims to propose a model to examine servant leadership’s role in stimulating task performance and risk-taking behaviors during crisis times. In this model, safety climate was hypothesized to serve as a mediating variable between servant leadership, task performance and risk-taking behavior. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected from 237 staff (medial and administrative staff) working in Palestinian hospitals. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. Common method bias remedies were presented. Findings This study demonstrates that servant leadership is effective in fostering task performance and risk-taking behaviors in times of crisis through the mediation of safety climate. According to the results, safety climate demonstrated to fully mediate relationship between servant leadership and task performance (ß = 0.225, p-value = 0.000), and the relationship between servant leadership and risk-taking behavior (ß = 0.248, p-value = 0.000). Moreover, the results demonstrated that employees with higher experience tend to be more willing to engage in risk-taking behavior. Practical implications The findings may be useful for hospital managers on the role servant leadership can play in generating positive work-related outcomes during crisis times. Originality/value The paper is among the few empirical endeavors which examine the consequences of servant leadership in times of crisis, taking into account the intervening role of safety climate.

This article explains digital capital in the wayang kulit (Javanese traditional shadow puppet) association in Yogyakarta during the Covid-19 pandemic era and how its digital capital can protect and serve as informal social protection for the wayang kulit artists association in Yogyakarta in the difficult time. Following the case study method is to investigate WL (Ki SN) association, the group of wayang kulit GP (Ki CB) and SK (Ki GS). The three associations were chosen because they can survive in the middle of the pandemic by holding wayang kulit performances virtually using existing social capital and digital capital. Based on the research results show during the Covid-19 pandemic, digital capital is more effective in providing social protection for group or associations of wayang kulit in Yogyakarta than the traditional social capital scene. The higher the digital capital has seen from the virtual social network (subscriber and viewer or virtual audience), norms of reciprocity, and trust existing with external parties to increase the virtual shows, therefore it can meet the economic needs and welfare of every member in the group and association for facing the pandemic. This research offers a new alternative framework related to digital capital as a informal social protection form. Meanwhile, the practical result is as references for wayang kulit artists to survive in the uncertainty of pandemic and adapt to the challenges of technological digitalization. In addition, it can suggest for the government in formulating rules and an effective model of social protection policy for wayang kulit performances, shadow puppet artists, and in general other artist who rely on art performance as their livelihoods.

This article looks at time banking ­– a system of exchange in which people trade services with one another using time instead of money as currency. Time banking is framed from a social work perspective as a social innovation that contributes to poverty alleviation and increasing inclusion. However, most such organizations fail to institutionalize as care providers and fail within the first three years. In this paper, I discuss a rare success story—a time bank in Nizhny Novgorod, the fourth largest city in Russia—which has been functioning for over 15 years and positioned itself as a non-charitable organization. I engage with sharing economy studies—a growing but ambiguous field—to explain the success of the time bank in Nizhny Novgorod. Research in the sharing economy has mostly concentrated on two extreme cases: business-to-customer operations or grassroots communities practicing radical alternatives to market exchange. The case studies have been united by an assumption that sharing economy organizations would generate social capital. However, there has been limited evidence to support this claim. In this article, I aim to test this hypothesis and explore whether the informal networks, norms of reciprocity and trust that are fostered among members of the Nizhny Novgorod time bank are the factors that explain the sustainability of this association. The study is informed by 22 in-depth interviews with the gatekeepers and members of this community. In the interviews, I paid attention to the socio-demographic characteristics of the participants and the structure of their social capital; the characteristics of the mode of exchange practiced in the community (the volume, direction, and range of services, the relatedness to professional activities and other spheres of life); their value set and worldview (egalitarianism, altruism, justice); and indicators of generalized trust. Results revealed that time bankers do not tend to create strong and sustainable relationships outside of the framework of the exchange. I put forward the following explanatory hypothesis: the calculativeness of time bankers, the market-driven valuations of ‘egalitarian’ service exchange and a unilateral attitude to the exchange are in conflict with a longing for Gemeinschaft—a community with strong bonding interdependence based on the norms of mutuality. This association failed to provide the conditions for generalized trust to emerge. The attempt to simultaneously create a tightly bonded community, but still answer the needs of the digital age resulted in a pastiche of a sharing economy platform. Beyond the case at hand, this study theorizes the rhetoric and reality of the sharing economy by summarizing the grounds for the expectations of generating social capital and explains why certain expectations could not be met.

Relying on social comparison theory and the norm of reciprocity perspective, the present study aims to longitudinally investigate the specific relationships between relative leader–member exchange (RLMX) and relative organizational citizenship behavior (ROCB). We examined the potentially bidirectional relationship between these two constructs using data consisting of 1,420 time-lagged observations from 725 employees surveyed at multiple time points. Our results indicate that performing more helping behaviors than the group average (ROCB) leads to a subsequent higher quality of relationship with the leader compared to the group average (RLMX), above and beyond the effect of organizational citizenship behavior on RLMX. This effect is stronger than the reverse relationship (i.e., the effect of RLMX on ROCB, above and beyond the leader–member exchange). Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

The strategy method is a powerful method for eliciting conditional cooperation in strategic interactions. Theoretically, players' cooperation conditional on a specific level of others’ cooperation using the strategy method should be equal to their unconditional cooperation given an equivalent belief about others’ cooperation. However, using the Prisoner's Dilemma, we show that decisions using the strategy method are more selfish than decisions under a simultaneous decision protocol predicted from players’ beliefs. This is driven entirely by lower cooperation among conditional cooperators with low expectations about others’ cooperation. We further show that relative to simultaneous choice, the strategy method shifts salient norms from an egalitarian fairness norm (`give half’) to a reciprocity norm (`match others’ behaviour'). This undermines cooperation among players with low beliefs about others’ cooperation. These results thus show that the strategy method does not merely hold beliefs constant, but also shifts which salient norms influence choice behaviour. This has important implications for the use of the strategy method in eliciting social preferences. Keywords: cooperation, Prisoner’s Dilemma, social norms, social preferences, strategy method

PurposeUsing norms of reciprocity, this study explores how employees' exposure to workplace ostracism (WO) affects their task performance through the mediating role of knowledge hiding (KH). Moreover, drawing on social identity theory, this research outstretches the boundary conditions of KH, i.e. under which KH is less likely to occur.Design/methodology/approachTime-lagged, multisource data collected from 297 employees in service sector organizations in Pakistan were analyzed using SMARTPLS (v 3.3.3).FindingsThe findings reveal that perception of WO provokes KH behavior in employees, which, in turn, deteriorates their task performance. Results also disclose that moral identification (MI) and organizational identification (OI) buffer against the positive association between WO and KH, such that the ostracism-KH link is weaker at higher levels of MI and OI, and vice versa.Practical implicationsThe study envisages that a KH loop occurs between the knowledge hider and the knowledge seeker, which fosters spirals of conflict that might prevail in organizations over an extended period of time. Therefore, the occurrence context of KH should be mitigated through appropriate managerial interventions. In addition, nurturing self-identities will be beneficial for both employees and organizations.Originality/valueThis is the first study that investigates the relationship between WO and task performance while also considering the mediating role of KH and the moderating roles of MI and OI.

Purpose Controversy exists about the shape of the relationship between loyalty and profitability. This paper aims to address the possibly nonlinear effects of behavioral loyalty (BLOY) on customer spending (as a proxy for profitability). Building on social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity, it examines the asymmetries between BLOY and customer spending and the moderating influence of personal communication (PCOMM) as a social reward and dispositional positive reciprocity as process evidence. Design/methodology/approach Study 1a (n = 309) gathered customer data from four restaurants and Study 1b (n = 252) data from hotel guests after they checked out. Study 2 is an experimental study with two manipulated factors (BLOY and PCOMM). In total, 295 participants from a large German online panel completed the study. Findings The results indicate an inverted-U shaped relationship between BLOY and customer spending: after reaching a turning point, customers gradually curb spending as their BLOY further increases. High PCOMM acts as a reciprocal response while triggering additional customer spending particularly at higher levels of behavioral loyalty; positive reciprocity adjusts the differences in customer spending when social rewards such as PCOMM are present. Research limitations/implications The asymmetric relationship between BLOY and customer spending is tested only for hedonic service settings. Practical implications Not all loyal customers spend more – companies need to meet their reciprocal obligations before they can benefit from increased customer spending. Originality/value The present research re-considers the nature of the relationship between BLOY and customer spending and reveals an inverted-U shaped relationship, with a turning point beyond which greater customer loyalty decreases customer spending. It finds converging process evidence for the mechanism of reciprocity underlying this relationship. This study also details the financial impact of BLOY on the firm by investigating actual customer spending.

The felt obligation to return a benefit, termedreciprocity, has been identified as motivating care exchanges between older adults and their younger family members. Within the context of large-scale emigration of young adults from the Indian state of Kerala, this study examines how left-behind older adults and their family care-givers recognise, interpret and give meaning to reciprocal exchanges, expectations and obligations in their care relationship. Employing a social exchange perspective, we qualitatively explore the norm of reciprocity through in-depth interviews of 48 participants (older adults and their care-givers) from emigrant households. Older adults and their care-givers identified reciprocal notions in their care exchange relationship that provided an interpretive framework for describing expectations, motivations, obligations and experiences across care-giving relationships. Spousal care-givers derived reciprocal motives and mutual care obligations through the institution of marriage. Adult children recognised filial duties and responsibilities and were in principle prepared to provide care to their parents. Reciprocating the support received and the likelihood of intergenerational transfers motivated care exchanges from adult children to their older parents. Daughters-in-law executed transferred filial roles from their emigrant husbands and bore a larger burden of care. Primary adult care-givers relied on the ‘demonstration effect’, hoping that children observe the care-giving process and emulate it later. Imbalances and non-reciprocity in the care exchange led to frustrations and threatened the care relationships.

Although compliments can be an effective compliance tactic, little is known about the reasons for their effectiveness. Two studies tested three potential mechanisms underlying the use of compliments as a compliance tactic: reciprocity, positive mood, and liking. In both studies, participants were either primed with the reciprocity norm or not, then received either complimentary or neutral feedback from a stranger. Participants were later faced with a request from the stranger. Mood, liking for the requestor, and compliance were measured. As predicted, compliments increased compliance in both studies. Neither study found evidence for positive mood nor liking as a mediator of the compliment effect. However, reciprocity priming was found to moderate the compliment effect in both studies, suggesting that compliments are effective, at least in part, because they invoke the reciprocity norm.

This paper considers resource coordination in production systems featuring the presence of enterprises and organizations pursuing social, health-related, educational, cultural, and environmental aims, or social enterprises (SEs). The resource coordination problem is one of allocating and distributing resources towards these aims. By their very nature, these goals are very close to the Polanyian idea of the primacy of society over the self-regulating market. We ask what the specificities of organisations that pursue social aims are, and what coordination mechanisms underpin their production. The premise is that individuals are driven by plural motivations, including pro-social motivations besides self-interested ones, thus requiring a plurality of coordination mechanisms. The paper suggests that SEs make principal use of cooperative pacts based on norms of reciprocity, but include also market and state-led coordination, both at organisational and systemic levels. We consider specific institutional solutions in support of cooperation and reciprocity. These are: combined rules on profit and asset distribution, surplus accumulation and redistribution, and multi-stakeholding.

[...]they deal with pressures from different groups of stakeholders (e.g., customers and employees) with multiple and often conflicting needs or demands. Because organizational resources to address these demands are limited, these different groups of stakeholders are not equal to top managers. Customers, as external stakeholders, have economic power over the firm (i.e., if they stop paying for products or services, organizations will suffer financially or even cease to exist;Stevens etal., 2005). [...]how organizations respond to the competing needs, provided the needs are urgent and important, depends on the relative power of the stakeholder groups (Westphal & Zajac, 2001). According to the Chronicle of Higher Education, only 10% of universities were planning to instruct online, whereas 32% were proposing a hybrid model, and 53% were planning to instruct in person as of July 20, 2020 (Chronicle Staff, 2020). According to social exchange theory and the norm of reciprocity, employees feel obligated to reciprocate the treatment they receive from their organizations (Blau, 1964;Gouldner, 1960).

As an organizational asset, employees have an important role in the success of the organization. How to bring up employees who feel supported by the organization and follow the norms of reciprocity with a feeling of obligation to make positive efforts for the organization is the aim of the discussion in this article. The contribution of the article arises from the urgency to provide an explanation of the mechanism that underlies the theory of Perceived Organization Support (POS) for novice researchers in linking the antecedents and consequences of POS. The managerial implication leads to the role of the manager to start by first showing support to his employees in order to move the norm of individual reciprocity to be able to enjoy the utility of POS which includes direct benefits for the welfare of individuals and organizations. Variations of POS measurement items are also discussed to provide recommendations for instrument choice among alternatives. Future POS researchers can take a look at trends in POS-related businesses such as worker collaboration, changes in individual-organizational relationships, and across cultures.

Although online communities with a supportive climate encourage members to participate and exchange their information openly and freely, participants may perceive the community to be unsafe without proper control. Do controlling climates also contribute to the accumulation of social capital in online brand communities (OBCs)? The purpose of our study was to investigate how controlling and supportive climates jointly influence community identification, and to examine the mediating effects of social capital and the moderating effects of community age. A conceptual framework was proposed and tested with data collected from an online survey of 481 online brand community members. We found that both controlling and supportive climates had positive effects on social capital (trust and norms of reciprocity), which exerted a partial mediation between community climate and community identification in the OBCs examined. Developing a community climate was particularly effective in generating trust in older communities. This research contributes to the community literature and has important implications for community climate management. We identified the boundary conditions of the community climate-trust association.

The current study investigated two types of punishment (prosocial and proself punishment) in the ultimatum game (UG) and examined the impact of individuals' prosocial orientation on the costly punishment in the UG in a representative sample of Chinese undergraduate students (N = 344). The prosocial orientation was measured with individuals' performance in the dictator game (DG), social value orientation (SVO), and the personal norm of reciprocity. Prosocial and proself punishers were established with responses in advantage and disadvantage offers in the UG. Results showed that prosocial and proself punishers coexisted in the UG, and prosocial punishers were more likely to be prosocial in SVO and allocated more resources to the recipient in the DG than proself punishers, but differences in positive/negative reciprocity between prosocial and proself punishers were not found. Further regression analysis found that SVO type and generosity in the DG could predict the type of punishers in the UG, but not positive/negative reciprocity. These findings indicate that individuals rejecting unfair offers in the UG may be motivated by either prosocial motivation with strict fairness concern (prosocial punishment) or selfish motivation with maximizing self-interest concern (proself punishment). Moreover, SVO type and generosity in the DG might be effective measures to discriminate prosocial and proself punishers in the UG.

Aim There is a large discrepancy between people's preferred and actual place of death in Japan. To manage this discrepancy, this study aimed to identify the variability in preferred places of death and their associated factors among Japanese older people. Methods Cross-sectional survey data were collected in 2016 as part of the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study, in which 20 204 participants were asked about their preferred place of death. Logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine the final determinants for home as the preferred place of death. Results Based on survey data, 35.8% of respondents preferred home as the place of death, 42.7% preferred some sort of facility and 21.5% were unsure. Those who preferred to be at home when receiving end-of-life care were more likely to be older in age, live with others, be employed, be homeowners, have lived in their current residence for a longer period, not be vaccinated for influenza in the past year, engage in physical work or intense sports, not have participated in end-of-life discussions regarding preferred place of death, have experienced relatives dying at home, practice norms of reciprocity, have a sense of attachment to their neighborhood, receive instrumental social support, interact with neighbors and live in a rural area. Conclusions Factors related to community attachment were associated with choosing home as the preferred place of death. To fulfill the preferences of Japanese older people, a broad range of demographic, health, behavioral, social, cultural and environmental factors should be considered. Geriatr Gerontol Int ••; ••: ••-•• Geriatr Gerontol Int 2021; ••: ••-••.

PurposeThe effective transfer of knowledge within an organization is critical for its sustainable competitive advantage. Based on the norm of reciprocity, it can be concluded that individuals’ primary motivation to transfer their treasured knowledge can be summarized as “trust,” that is, the individuals trust their selfless transfer behavior can be reciprocated by the recipients in the future.Design/methodology/approachIn this study, a simulation model based on knowledge transfer behavior and reciprocal trust between individuals is built through agent-based modeling and simulation to investigate the factors that influence the efficiency of knowledge transfer within an organization.FindingsExperiments are performed to test the impact of reciprocal trust and organizational structure on the efficiency of knowledge transfer.Originality/valueThe results indicate a significant role of key elements of reciprocal trust and organizational structure, which provides relevant practical guidance for both individuals and organization managers in the context of knowledge transfer.

Why, in the context of a rural Colombian mayoral election, do poor clients donate goods and services to political campaigns? The literature on clientelism describes it as a political order in which politicians exchange resources or favors for political support. In this article, I describe the clientelist relationships and exchanges in a 2019 rural Colombian mayoral election, including what I call pork belly politics, where poor clients also donate scarce resources—most notably crispy fried pork belly—to patrons. Based on eleven months of ethnographic and interview data from before, during, and after the campaign, I show that elections are a crucial time for the rural poor to position themselves vis-a-vis the future mayor. Further, I show that the practices I describe are simultaneously instrumental, calculated to guarantee their access to needed public resources for the four-year term, and moral, rooted in a broader political culture based on norms of reciprocity. I explain the three levels of clientelist relationships that emerge during campaigns, and the practices and expectations at play in each. These findings add new depth to our understanding of rural politics and poverty, client agency, and the moral and instrumental dimensions of clientelist exchanges.

Do lawyer fees influence lawyer behavior? The impact of lawyer fees on lawyer behavior has been discussed theoretically and anecdotally, mostly from an aspect of economic incentives. Yet little res...

Putnam’s seminal work on social capital focused on early forms of health insurance as both a result, and accelerator, of the norms of reciprocity and social trust that foster cooperation. Yet, while social capital has been studied as a factor supporting community-based health insurance in developing countries, there has been no analysis of its role in U.S. health insurance. With repeal of the mandate to carry health insurance, this product is once again a purely voluntary purchase, and bears analysis as a cooperation problem. Putnam later documented a sharp decline in social capital in the United States. If social capital undergirds participation in health insurance, we can expect reduced reciprocity to lower willingness to cross-subsidize the sick. Waning social capital could also manifest itself in reduced trust that other healthy people will purchase insurance and lack of trust in the providers and manufacturers who make claims on the insurance pool.

Purpose A major paradigm shift focusing on the dark side of leadership has generated lots of concern for organizations as leadership has cascading effects on employees’ behaviour. This study aims to understand negative behaviours in the organization as a system of interrelated interaction initiated from the top which trickles down to employees. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on the theories of social exchange and norms of reciprocity, social learning and displaced aggression, this study models how and when abusive supervision relates to employees’ task performance. The model is empirically tested and extended to cover mediation and moderation processes. Drawing data from 218 bank supervisors and employees, this study uses the structural equation modelling to analyse a trickle-down model of abusive supervision. Findings Results from multi-waved, multi-sourced data indicated a mediating effect on the abusive supervision–performance relationships and provided support for employees’ guilt proneness and emotional dissonance as moderators. Overall, the results provided support for a moderated mediation relationship in the trickle-down model. Originality/value This study provides new knowledge into the potential boundary conditions of employees’ guilt proneness and emotional dissonance in affecting the relationship between abusive supervision, counterproductive work behaviour and task performance.

Purpose This study aims to investigate the process of service gifting (i.e. unexpected upgrades or benefits) and examine why service gifts do not always result in firm-beneficial reciprocal behaviors from consumers. Design/methodology/approach Through a series of three studies including both scenario-based and game-theory-based experiments, this research proposes and empirically validates a conceptual model that examines the effect of service gifts on firm-beneficial reciprocal behaviors, and the role of collective social connection and norm of positive reciprocity (NPR) in this process. Findings The findings of this research show that the consumer’s feelings of collective social connection mediate the link between the provision of service gifts and firm-beneficial outcomes. Furthermore, an individual’s adherence to NPR moderates this process. Specifically, individuals with a strong adherence to NPR do not display increases in collective social connection following the receipt of a service gift. Those who are low in NPR follow the expected pattern of increased collective social connection leading to reciprocation. Research limitations/implications Future research may further generalize the model to other situations such as high vs low context cultures. Longitudinal field experiments can be used to further investigate collective versus relational social connection, which can be either a by-product or a primary benefit derived from service delivery. Practical implications The results of this research reveal the critical role of collective social connection which has been largely ignored in service gifting research. It encourages managers to use service gifting to directly boost consumers collective social connection. Furthermore, it offers managers insight into why service gifts do not always result in firm-beneficial outcomes because of the moderating role of NPR. Originality/value The roles of social connection and the norm of reciprocity have been under-studied in both theoretical and empirical work on service gifting. This paper demonstrates that, contrary to traditional thought, those typically expected to reciprocate the most (i.e. high in NPR) may not realize increased collective social connection leading to reciprocation following receipt of a service gift.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate (1) how female blog users' perceived benefits (i.e. perceived usefulness, perceived enjoyment, community identification and perceived norm of reciprocity) influence their perceived social capital on fashion blogs, (2) the influence of structural social capital and cognitive social capital on users' relational social capital and (3) the influence of relational social capital on blog loyalty.Design/methodology/approachStructural equation modeling was performed using 530 useable data collected through an online survey.FindingsThe result indicated that perceived usefulness and the norm of reciprocity led to the development of cognitive social capital, while community identification and the norm of reciprocity led to the development of structural social capital. Cognitive and structural social capital both led to the development relational social capital, which in turn influenced blog loyalty.Originality/valueThis study provides insights for a fashion brand marketing strategy that uses fashion blogs to target relevant consumers. It helps firms to understand the factors that lead people to embed their resources in a blog and to learn how the different perceived benefits impact blog users' contributions to the community.

Purpose: Gratitude is an interdisciplinary concept frequently explored in positive psychology, which recognizes gratitude as one of the seven transcendent character forces that promote well-being and life satisfaction. The purpose of the conducted research was to develop the concept of gratitude toward the organization and prepare a tool to study this phenomenon. Methods: The study was cross-sectional. Participants were 802 employees from various organizations. Results: The Gratitude Toward the Organization Scale has a good internal consistency (Cronbach’s α was 0.91). Factor analysis confirmed the two-factor structure of this tool. The dimensions of gratitude toward the organization are distinguished as: (1) gratitude as a commitment to reciprocity and (2) gratitude as a moral norm. The construct validity of this measure was confirmed. Gratitude toward the organization correlated positively with job satisfaction, affective commitment to the organization, organizational justice, and perceived organizational and supervisor support, while being negatively correlated with intent to leave the organization. Conclusions: The obtained results confirm very good psychometric properties of the Gratitude Toward the Organization Scale as a valid and reliable measure for studying the gratitude of employees, which can be successfully used by researchers in Poland.

PurposeInterorganizational reciprocity plays a key role in relationships among software firms and open source communities. This study seeks to illuminate how a firm's open source strategy, characterized by its participation in the open source community, contributes to its financial performance.Design/methodology/approachBased on the norm of reciprocity and social capital theory, the study proposes a model comprising the behavioral antecedents and business results of a firm's symbiotic relationship with the open source community. Data were collected through a survey. Partial least squares-based structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to assess the results.FindingsA firm's participative behaviors can have three dimensions: technology giving, technology taking and social participation. Technology taking directly impacts financial performance, whereas the effects of technology giving and social participation on financial performance are fully mediated by the firm's symbiotic relationship with the open source community.Practical implicationsManagers can understand how a specific behavior ultimately contributes to a symbiotic relationship or a firm's financial performance and how to flexibly align participation strategies with the business orientation.Originality/valueThe study adds to the open source literature by refining and enriching the conceptual domain of a firm's participative behaviors in open source communities. It also reveals how contrasting behavioral strategies impact a firm's financial performance.

Significance Rice is a highly interdependent crop. Rice required far more labor than dryland crops like wheat, and rice’s irrigation networks forced farmers to coordinate water use. To deal with these demands, rice villages developed strong norms for labor exchange. Using China as a natural test case, we compare nearby provinces that differ in rice and wheat, but share the same ethnicity, religion, and national government. In survey data from over 11,000 Chinese citizens, rice-farming provinces report tighter norms than traditionally wheat-growing provinces. Rice also predicts tight norms around the world. These data suggest that China’s agricultural past still shapes cultural differences in the modern day—and perhaps explain why East Asia has tighter social norms than the wheat-growing West., Data recently published in PNAS mapped out regional differences in the tightness of social norms across China [R. Y. J. Chua, K. G. Huang, M. Jin, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 116, 6720–6725 (2019)]. Norms were tighter in developed, urbanized areas and weaker in rural areas. We tested whether historical paddy rice farming has left a legacy on social norms in modern China. Premodern rice farming could plausibly create strong social norms because paddy rice relied on irrigation networks. Rice farmers coordinated their water use and kept track of each person’s labor contributions. Rice villages also established strong norms of reciprocity to cope with labor demands that were twice as high as dryland crops like wheat. In line with this theory, China’s historically rice-farming areas had tighter social norms than wheat-farming areas, even beyond differences in development and urbanization. Rice–wheat differences were just as large among people in 10 neighboring provinces (n = 3,835) along the rice–wheat border. These neighboring provinces differ sharply in rice and wheat, but little in latitude, temperature, and other potential confounding variables. Outside of China, rice farming predicted norm tightness in 32 countries around the world. Finally, people in rice-farming areas scored lower on innovative thinking, which tends to be lower in societies with tight norms. This natural test case within China might explain why East Asia—historically reliant on rice farming—has tighter social norms than the wheat-farming West.

PurposeTeams often cannot fulfill their managers’ expectations due to unfairness issues and dysfunctional conflicts with teammates. This paper aims to create a fair team environment, it is important to analyze the interrelationship between unfairness and conflict. However, only a few studies have done this and reported inconsistent results. Using negative reciprocity research as a theoretical foundation, this paper analyzes the interconnection between unfairness and conflict dimensions in the team context. This paper further integrates conflict management research to show employees and managers how to handle unfairness and conflict in teams.Design/methodology/approachThe authors conducted a longitudinal survey study (three points in time) with 237 employees from different German organizations.FindingsThe results of cross-lagged structural equation modeling provide some evidence that interpersonal, procedural and informational unfairness predict relationship conflict and process conflict. Several of these effects become non-significant over time. Further, relationship and process conflict have several significant relationships with the unfairness dimensions, while task conflict did not have any significant relationship. The results also suggest that employees can break up the vicious cycle of unfairness and conflict by using a cooperative conflict management approach.Research limitations/implicationsThis paper focuses on members of autonomous, interdependent and existing teams and the interpersonal relationship of a team member with her or his teammates. Future research could analyze leader-member relationships in different team types.Practical implicationsThe application of cooperative conflict management enables employees to break up the vicious cycle of unfairness.Originality/valueThis paper clarifies the interrelationship between unfairness and conflict and shows that a team member can apply a cooperative conflict management style to handle effectively unfairness and conflict.