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Aims: The purpose of this systematic review was to determine if school-based marijuana and alcohol prevention programs are effective in preventing marijuana and alcohol use in adolescents between t...

The prevalence of risk behaviours, such as marijuana use and alcohol abuse, among youth in North America has been steadily increasing since the 1980s, with sharp inclines since the early 1990s (1–11). Alcohol is the drug of choice among North American adolescents, and it is used by more young people than tobacco or illicit drugs (12–14). A review of American population-based studies (5,15) suggests that drug and alcohol risk behaviours start at approximately 10 years of age, and peak between 14 and 15 years of age. A national study (4) suggests that for Canadian youth who are 15 years of age, the prevalence of alcohol use is 25% for boys and 19% for girls. The prevalence of alcohol use for Canadian youth who are between 11 and 13 years of age is 12% for boys and 8% for girls (4). A Canadian addiction survey (16) indicated that 61.4% of youth between 15 and 17 years of age had used marijuana in their lifetime, and 37% had used it at least once in the past 12 months. In 2004, The Centre for Addictions and Mental Health (Toronto, Ontario) reported that Aboriginal youth are two to six times at a higher risk for every alcohol-related problem compared with other youth (17). Results from the 2002 Alberta Youth Experience Survey (18) indicated that a higher percentage of Aboriginal youth compared with non-Aboriginal youth reported signs of alcohol abuse (34.5% and 12.3%, respectively), and twice as many Aboriginal youth between grades 7 and 9 had used marijuana compared with non-Aboriginal youth (52.1% and 26.8%, respectively). These data suggest that being of Aboriginal ethnicity increases the risk of marijuana use or alcohol abuse among adolescents. Through an extensive literature search, the authors found no studies that reviewed the independent association between Aboriginal cultural status and marijuana use after multivariate adjustment. Only one American study (19) was found by the authors that reviewed the independent association of Aboriginal cultural status with alcohol use after multivariate adjustment for variables, such as socioeconomic status (SES). In this study, initial differences in alcohol use by cultural status were no longer statistically significant in the final multivariate model (19). The primary purpose of the present paper was to determine whether Aboriginal cultural status is independently associated with the risk behaviours of marijuana use and alcohol abuse (being drunk) among youth after multivariate adjustment for other factors, such as SES.

the nineteenth century, the port wine trade was one of the most important components of the Portuguese economy.1 British merchants, trading woollens for wine, and later for products from Brazil and other Portuguese colonial possessions, had visited Portugal from at least the early fourteenth century. The beginning during the 1670s of persisting Franco-British hostilities led to radical changes in the British wine trade. Most drinkers in Great Britain, the world's principal wine-importing nation, until then had favoured wines from France at the end of the seven

OBJECTIVES: A majority of population-based studies suggest prevalence of depressed mood and anxiety is most common during late adolescence to early adulthood. Mental health status has been linked previously to socio-economic status in adults. The purpose of this systematic literature review is to clarify if socio-economic status (SES) is a risk indicator of depressed mood or anxiety in youth between the ages of 10 to 15 years old. METHODS: We performed a systematic literature review to identify published or unpublished papers between January 1, 1980 and October 31, 2006 that reviewed depressed mood or anxiety by SES in youth aged 10-15 years. SYNTHESIS: We found nine studies that fulfilled our inclusion criteria and passed the methodological quality review. The prevalence of depressed mood or anxiety was 2.49 times higher (95% CI 2.33-2.67) in youth with low SES in comparison to youth with higher SES. DISCUSSION: The evidence suggests that low SES has an inverse association with the prevalence of depressed mood and anxiety in youth between the ages of 10 to 15 years old. Higher rates of depressed mood and anxiety among lower socio-economic status youth may impact emotional development and limit future educational and occupational achievement. CONCLUSION: Lower socio-economic status is associated with higher rates of depressed mood and anxiety in youth. Language: en

OBJECTIVES: A majority of population-based studies suggest prevalence of drug and alcohol risk behaviour increases during late adolescence to early adulthood. The purpose of this systematic literature review is to clarify if socio-economic status (SES) is a determinant of marijuana and alcohol risk behaviour in adolescents between the ages of 10–15 years. METHODS: We performed a meta-analysis to identify published or unpublished papers between January 1, 1980 and February 9, 2007 that reviewed marijuana and alcohol risk behaviour by SES in adolescents aged 10–15 years. SYNTHESIS: We found nine studies that fulfilled our inclusion criteria and passed the methodological quality review. The prevalence of marijuana and alcohol risk behaviour was 22% higher (RR = 1.22; 95% CI 1.14-1.31) in adolescents with low SES in comparison to adolescents with higher SES. Stratification by country of origin revealed that American and New Zealand studies had statistically significant variability in the reported effects as compared to European and UK studies. DISCUSSION: The evidence suggests that low SES has an inverse association with the prevalence of marijuana and alcohol risk behaviour in adolescents between the ages of 10–15 years. Higher rates of marijuana and alcohol risk behaviour among lower SES adolescents may impact emotional development, limit future educational and occupational achievement, and increase the likelihood for adult marijuana and alcohol addiction. CONCLUSION: Lower SES adolescents have higher rates of marijuana and alcohol risk behaviour than higher SES adolescents.

the eighteenth century, the Portuguese export economy, with the exception of one commodity, relied almost exclusively upon products from the overseas territories. The exception the wine produced in a region bordering the middle reaches of the Douro River, and exported from the northern port of Oporto virtually exclusively to the British Isles became European Portugal's most valuable export. During this period, the already close economic and diplomatic ties between Great Britain and Portugal strengthened, each receiving substantial benefits from the other. From the early years of the eighteenth century, British imports had increasingly clothed and fed the Portuguese, while the British appetite for Portuguese wines had provided Portugal with the means to counter British economic dominance. No other trading partner offered Portugal a similar opportunity for profit; indeed, after 1780, the trading balance between the two began to turn in favour of the Portuguese, the result of the combined growth of Portugal's manufacturing and port wine sectors, plus the favourable commerce with her colonies. This situation continued until

The Gravity Probe B data system, developed, integrated, and tested by Lockheed Missiles & Space Company, and later Lockheed Martin Corporation, included flight and ground command, control, and communications software. The development was greatly facilitated, conceptually and by the transfer of key personnel, through Lockheed's earlier flight and ground test software development for the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Key design challenges included the tight mission timeline (17 months, 9 days of on-orbit operation), the need to tune the system once on-orbit, and limited 2 Kbps real-time data rates and ground asset availability. The result was a completely integrated space vehicle and Stanford mission operations center, which successfully collected and archived 97% of the 'guide star valid' data to support the science analysis. Lessons learned and incorporated from the HST flight software development and on-orbit support experience, and Lockheed's independent research and development effort, will be discussed.

The Gravity Probe B spacecraft, developed, integrated, and tested by Lockheed Missiles & Space Company and later Lockheed Martin Corporation, consisted of structures, mechanisms, command and data handling, attitude and translation control, electrical power, thermal control, flight software, and communications. When integrated with the payload elements, the integrated system became the space vehicle. Key requirements shaping the design of the spacecraft were: (1) the tight mission timeline (17 months, 9 days of on-orbit operation), (2) precise attitude and translational control, (3) thermal protection of science hardware, (4) minimizing aerodynamic, magnetic, and eddy current effects, and (5) the need to provide a robust, low risk spacecraft. The spacecraft met all mission requirements, as demonstrated by dewar lifetime meeting specification, positive power and thermal margins, precision attitude control and drag-free performance, reliable communications, and the collection of more than 97% of the available science data.

Slavery in eighteenth-century North Africa, as described in the literature of that era, is the main theme of this paper. However, as the eighteenth century gives an arbitrary division to our topic, the scope of this study has been enlarged. The account of Morocco begins with the reign of Mulay Isma'il (1672–1727) and extends through that of Mulay Sliman (1792–1822). As conditions were much the same throughout both of these rulers' reigns, any division would be meaningless. The account of slavery in Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli has been extended in the same manner. The period of the latter eighteenth century was one of decline for all three of these Muslim states. Conditions remained the same until the period of time around 1820. Then naval action by Lord Exmouth, and diplomatic pressure by the combined European powers practically put an end to the holding of Christian slaves.

Philippe Broyon Pioneer Trader in East Africa by NORMAN ROBERT BENNETT OLLOWING the Brussels Conference of 1876 leading to the formation of the Association Internationale Africaine, reports of a young European resident in East Africa reached those interested in the new effort to penetrate this area of the African continent. He signed his letters with the name, " Philippe Broyon-Mirambo,"' and he called himself " a relation of the Sultan of Unyamwezi."2 The object of this study is to recount the activities of this adventurer who was the first independent European trader and plantation owner in the interior of East Africa. Philippe Broyon was born in Bex, Switzerland, in 1844. He chose the sea for a career, and made several voyages to Zanzibar as a sailor on French vessels from Marseilles between 1862 and 1866. Then he accepted employment from the French firm of Roux de Fraissinet in Zanzibar. After a time Broyon decided to enter into trade on his own account, and in 1872 he made his first inland expedition, accompanied by five Africans. His base of operations became the trading centre of Saadani on the coast opposite Zanzibar where he had early gone to study the routes inland and the local conditions of trade.3 Little is known of Broyon's early activities in what is now Tanganyika. A few travellers, however, did report seeing Broyon, or at least traces of his activities, as they passed through the area in which he worked. In 1875 Lt. Murphy of the Cameron expedition in search of Livingstone found Broyon settled near Mpwapwa, a village about 200 miles from the coast. He apparently was well-established there and living in peace with his African neighbours.' Direct evidence of Broyon's presence in the area comes in a letter of his in 1875 sent from there to the French Consul in Zanzibar; Broyon reported that he had purchased from an African a rifle lost by H. M. Stanley in a recent encounter with a native group." A later English traveller reported that Broyon had lived at this location near Mpwapwa for two years." Additional reports of Broyon's travels are mentioned by other European visitors. Mackay of the Church Missionary Society gave Broyon credit for being the first outsider to open a trade route through the Useguha region ; the Arabs in their journeys inland had not developed this route.' Pare Horner of the Roman Catholic mission at Bagamoyo said that the Swiss trader had opened a route to the Nguru region of Tanganyika where his order later established a mission.s While trading in the interior, Broyon entered into close relations with the Nyamwezi leader, Mirambo-the chief brought to the knowledge of the outside world as a result of his conflict with Stanley and the Arabs when the AngloAmerican explorer was in search of Livingstone.' Broyon apparently first reached Mirambo in 1875 when a lack of provisions motivated him to travel further inland."1 According to reports reaching Europe, probably from Broyon, he went to Mirambo's village, Urambo, with a group of Arab traders. Friendly

The city of Salem, Massachusetts, was a major port for American commerce to Africa for much of the nineteenth century. Even in the latter years of the century, when trade had moved to larger centers, the Salem men still played an important role in some African areas. Due to the efforts of the Peabody Museum and the Essex Institute, many of the papers relating to this American contact with Africa have been preserved. The collections include logbooks of vessels, merchants' account books, and letters to and from agents and captains. The following pages briefly describe the materials relating to the history of Africa in the archives of the two Salem institutions. The list includes only those items of historical interest. (There are many logs of voyages to Africa of only nautical value.) It attempts to be complete, but no claim is made to having found every document of interest to the historian. Part of the contents of the archives remain uncatalogued and materials relating to Africa are occasionally uncovered under unlikely headings. Research for new sources is being continued.

An NDEA Summer Lanuage and Area Program will be offered during the eight-week summer session, June 26-August 18, 1967, on the UCLA campus. Languages to be offered are: Swahili, Afrikaans, Hausa, and Fulani. Area courses will be offered in anthropology, English, geography, history, law, and political science. The program is open to all undergraduate and graduate students interested in pursuing a combined area and language program. Applications for admission should be directed to the Summer Sessions Office, UCLA, Los Angeles, Calif. 90024. Fellowships (NDFL Summer Awards) are available through the Office of Education in Washington, D.C. The African Language and Area Center of Duquesne University, in cooperation with the African Language and Area Centers of Columbia, Howard, Indiana, Michigan State, Northwestern, Ohio, and Wisconsin universities, is sponsoring an eight-week Intensive Summer Language Program in six African languages which is supported by matching funds provided by the U.S. Office of Education under the National Defense Education Act. The Reverend Joseph L. Varga, C.S.Sp., professor of Swahili at Duquesne University, will assume overall responsibility for language instruction; and the whole Intensive Summer Program will be under the direction of Dr. Geza Grosschmid, director of the African Language and Area Center, Duquesne University. Courses: Intensive elementary courses are offered in Hausa, Ibo, Lingala, Mende, Swahili, and Yoruba. Intensive intermediate or advanced conversation courses are offered of the same, and enrollment will determine their instruction. Each intensive elementary and intermediate course (12 credits) is five hours a day, including lab, Monday through Friday. The advanced conversation course (4 credits) is one and one half hours a day, Monday through Friday.