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Генуэзская крепость Чембало (1345–1475 гг.), размещалась на горе Кастрон и имела сложную городскую и фортификационную планиграфию. В западной части города к 80–90-м гг. XIV в. сформировался латинский квартал, над которым возвышался замок св. Николая. В систему застройки латинского квартала входила церковь («храм №1»), которую исследователи (1999–2003 гг.) априорно стали именовать «храмом св. Николая». Однако западный мыс горы Кастрон носит имя св. Георгия. Это может служить основанием для предположения, что данный храм был посвящён св. Георгию – патрону города Генуи. Экспедицией Эрмитажа изучено четыре церковных постройки XIV–XV вв. (храмы №№ 2–5). Всем храмам присущи общие черты и функции. Их конструкции сложены из бута на известковом растворе. В кладках углов, дверных и оконных проёмов использованы сполии, выполненные из нуммулитового известняка. В храме № 5 в качестве строительного материала применены не только архитектурные детали, но фрагменты надгробий и посвятительных надписей из армянского храма XIV–XVII в. Ни на одном из храмов XIV–XV вв. не выявлены следы перекрытия с применением византийской кровельной черепицы – керамид и калиптеров. Черепичное покрытие («татарка») использовано только в конце XVIII в. при восстановлении храмов № 1 и № 5. Православные храмы (№ 2–5) возводились с использованием византийского фута (0,318 м). Церковные комплексы использовались на протяжении полутора-двух столетий в качестве квартальных городских часовен. В среднем на некрополях при каждой из церквей выявлено не менее 75 погребённых. Только в одном храме (№ 1) удалось in situ выявить следы полихромной стенной росписи. ЛИТЕРАТУРААдаксина С.Б. Монастырский комплекс X–XVI вв. на г.Аю-Даг. СПб.: ГЭ, 2002. 116 с.Адаксина С.Б. Работы Южно-Крымской археологической экспедиции // Археологические экспедиции в Крыму. 1995 год /отв. ред. В.Л. Мыц. Симферополь: Сонат, 2005. С. 11−15.Адаксина С.Б., Кирилко В.П., Мыц В.Л. Отчёт об археологических исследованиях средневековой крепости Чембало в 2004 году / Материалы Южно-Крымской археологической экспедиции. Вып. IV. СПб. Симферополь: ГЭ, 2005.190 с.Адаксина С.Б., Кирилко В.П., Мыц В.Л. Отчёт об археологических исследованиях средневековой крепости Чембало (г. Балаклава) в 2005 году / Материалы Южно-Крымской археологической экспедиции. Вып. V. СПб.; Симферополь: ГЭ, 2006. 223 с.Адаксина С.Б., Мыц В.Л. Отчет об археологических исследованиях средневековой крепости Чембало (г.Балаклава) в 2006 году / Материалы Южно-Крымской археологической экспедиции. Вып. VI. СПб.; Симферополь: ГЭ, 2007. 277 с.Адаксина С.Б., Мыц В.Л. Отчёт об археологических исследованиях средневековой крепости Чембало (г. Балаклава) в 2007 г. // Материалы Южно-Крымской археологической экспедиции. Вып. VII. СПб. Симферополь: ГЭ, 2008. 215 с.Адаксина С.Б., Мыц В.Л. Отчёт об археологических исследованиях средневековой крепости Чембало (г. Балаклава) в 2014 г. // Материалы Южно-Крымской археологической экспедиции. Вып. XII. СПб.; Севстополь: ГЭ, 2015. 204 с.Адаксина С.Б., Мыц В.Л. Золотоордынские компоненты в культуре генуэзского города Чембало (Балаклавы) в XIV−XV вв. // Археология Евразийских степей. 2018. №4. С. 206−210.Алексеенко Н.А., Дьячков С.В. Отчет о раскопках «консульской церкви» на территории крепости Чембало в 1999 году // НА НЗХТ. Д. №3432.Алексеенко Н.А., Гинькут Н.В., Дьячков С.В. Отчет о раскопках «консульской церкви» на территории крепости Чембало в 2000 // НА НЗХТ. Д. №3496.Алексеенко Н.А., Гинькут Н.В., Дьячков С.В. Отчет о раскопках «консульской церкви» на территории крепости Чембало в 2001 году // НА НЗХТ. Д. №3513.Алексеенко Н.А., Гинькут Н.В., Дьячков С.В. Отчет о раскопках «консульской церкви» на территории крепости Чембало в 2002 году // НА НЗХТ. Д. №3588.Алексеенко Н.А., Гинькут Н.В., Дьячков С.В. 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Nummulite facies are known to be a good indicator of Eocene shallow-water paleoenvironments. Nummulitic limestones are widespread in the Lower Eocene of Armenia—the Tethys/northern Peri-Tethys transition zone, but they are studied insufficiently so far. The objective of this work was an integrated study of Lower Eocene deposits in the typical Urtsadzor section (Ararat region, Armenia): detailization of the stratigraphic subdivision based on larger benthic foraminifers (LBF); restoration of sedimentation settings based on the facies analysis and tectonic conditions of the basin origin, and evolution in the Early–Middle Eocene by studying the rock fracture system and formational analysis. For the first time, the Ypresian shallow benthic zones SBZ 9-10 and SBZ 10-11 of the Tethyan Chronostratigraphic Scale were identified in Kotutz and Sevan formations—an important contribution to the development of a modern stratigraphic chart of Armenia. Restoration of depositional settings based on the microfacies analysis was accomplished for Lower Eocene carbonate rocks of Armenia for the first time. Nine microfacies were determined and interpreted in the Ypresian part of the Urtsadzor section. Evolution of paleobiocoenoses represented mainly by nummulites, orthophragmines, and red algae was traced through the section. A transgressive succession of microfacies types was revealed from the littoral to lower–middle parts of the middle ramp. Comparison of the section with the adjacent Shagap and Landzhar sections allowed us to estimate the facies variability of rocks and the main direction of transgressional expansion. Ypresian LBF in paleobiocoenoses of southern Armenia are similar to the Peri-Tethyan varieties at the generic and specific level, and distinguished from the Tethyan biocoenoses by the absence of porcelaneous foraminifers (alveolinids and soritids). The South Armenian Ypresian paleobiota is distinguished from the assemblages in northern Armenia and northern Peri-Tethys by the abundance of red algae remnants. Wide Late Ypresian transgression resulted in the proliferation of LBF in the shallow oligotrophic basins, and their hydrological differences provoked the diversification of biocoenoses. The study of jointing systems in nummulitic limestones healed with aluminous products of karstification demonstrated that the jointing was formed at the Early/Middle Eocene transition due to the northeastern to sublatitudinal tension during uplift of the southern rift shoulder of the emerging Middle Eocene Shirak–Sevan–Megri rift. Rifting was preceded by the Early Eocene attenuation of tectonic activity and expansion of a wide carbonate sedimentation basin with development features typical of pre-rift basins.

Paleogeographic interpretations have been carried out in Lebanon by means of paleontological analysis. This study is complementary to previous records which have explained the paleogeographic setting of the western side of Lebanon during the Cenozoic. Extensive fieldwork and sampling were performed in the area of Zahle (west part of the Bekaa Valley). Samples collected from this locality provided diverse microfossil assemblages. The results show that there is a major change in the paleogeographic setting during the transitional period extending from early Eocene to Miocene. These changes in paleogeographic setting resulted from repeated episodes of emergence and submergence due to oscillating tectonic movements, leading to variations in the sedimentation patterns across the Bekaa Basin. The new findings of calcareous nannofossils in the chalky facies of Zahle area frame the paleogeographic settings during the Paleocene and early Eocene. Regression was clearly recognized during the early middle Eocene, which was revealed by the change in marine setting from the deep in the early Eocene (represented by the chalky facies), to the shallow settings in the middle Eocene where the nummulite banks were formed. This sedimentation pattern appears to coincide with major break in the sea level curve already reported by many researchers. During the Oligocene, the collision between the African-Arabian and Eurasian plates started causing further uplift of the Lebanese structures and consequent partial erosion (non-sedimentation) of the above-mentioned lithologies. The sedimentation pattern during the Miocene in Lebanon reveals a major change shifting from a primarily marine regime to fully lacustrine.

Integration of stratigraphy, spatial evolution, and syn-tectonism paved the way to propose a new depositional model for the Eocene rocks in the Eastern Desert and Sinai. Minia, Darat, Samalut, and Maghagha geological formations have been recognized. Eight sedimentary facies including tidal flat/lagoon complex, restricted inner lagoon, shoals, outer lagoon, back-bank, nummulite bank, fore-bank, and open marine have been identified. They were deposited in the shallow marine photic environment on a gently dipping platform ramp due to north of Egypt. Furthermore, this ramp shows three main faunal associations depending on water depth. The facies zones are arranged into a series of parallel NE-SW elongated subsiding sub-basins, separated by emerged and submerged swells rising from the bottom of the Eocene sea. Physically controlled sedimentary structures indicate a para-autochthonous to bio-concentration of the nummulite bodies. The spatio-temporal variations in the depositional environments and hiatuses in between and within the studied rock units indicate stratigraphic unrest. The Syrian Arc tectonism is the main trigger for such disturbance, which was rejuvenated and enlarged during the Late Cretaceous up to the Neogene in the eastern and southeastern Mediterranean domain.

The role of microfacies and diagenesis was focused to assess the hydrocarbon potential of Eocene carbonate strata exposed in Sulaiman–Hazara mountain ranges. Thin- to thick-bedded Eocene limestone exhibits wackestone, packstone, mudstone, and grainstone texture and comprises larger benthic forams such as Nummulite, Assilina, Lockhartia, Discocyclina, Orbitolites and Operculina. The accumulation of the strata occurred in lagoon, inner to deeper shelf. The microfacies and textural variations revealed stable shallow shelf conditions in early Eocene. The marine sedimentation ceased in Hazara and Salt ranges, but Kohat and Sulaiman regions remained under water during middle Eocene. The deposition of Habib Rahi Formation in deeper shelf attests to local scale normal faulting due to the northward movement of the Indian Plate. The Eocene reservoir zones were sourced by Patala and Ghazij Formations and capped by thick cover of fluvial shale, establishing favourable conditions for stratigraphic traps. Thick limestone packages of foraminiferal wackestone/packstone and dolomitized/dolomitic wackestone microfacies are regarded as estimable targets for hydrocarbons exploration in the region. Several diagenetic processes were observed in the studied limestone which includes: micritization, dolomitization, neomorphism, cementation, mechanical and chemical compaction, fracturing and dissolution which were caused in marine, meteoric and burial diagenetic environments. Compaction was the main factor for the destruction of primary porosity along with cementation effect. The porosity in the limestone was significantly enhanced by late stage dissolution, fractures enclosed by calcite cement and dolomitization.

The present paper focuses for the first time on the trace fossils present in carbonate tests of the famous Egyptian middle Eocene larger foraminifer Nummulites gizehensis group. Bioerosion is represented by a unique diversified assemblage of seven ichnospecies belonging to four ichnogenera. Diagnostic drilling holes of the ichnogenus Oichnus are represented by the three ichnospecies O. simplex, O. paraboloides and O. asperus. Rare spiral galleries of Trypanites helicus and sinuous tunnels of Maeandropolydora sulcans were identified. Simple U-shaped borings of Caulostrepsis taeniola and Caulostrepsis isp. were also recognized within the studied nummulites. The reported drilling holes are attributed essentially to the predation of gastropods, whereas the other recognized galleries are assigned mainly to boring activities of the polychaete worms. Well-preserved tests with rare bioerosion and encrustation indicate deposition under a high rate of sedimentation and no prolonged transportation. Conversely, taphonomic characteristics of the bioeroded and encrusted nummulites can be used as good palaeoecological indictors of a deposition under low to fair rate of sedimentation. Coexistence of non-bioeroded and bioeroded/encrusted tests, common thick-bedded nummulite wackestone and packestone, predominated larger and flat Nummulites spp., and non-preferred imbrications are taken altogether with the reported ichnological assemblage to suggest that the nummulites were accumulated in situ and/or under weak influence of physical processes (storm and waves) in a shallow-marine environment, possibly middle to inner carbonate ramps.

Early Paleogene events of the Alpine Tethys were considerably upgraded for the Western Carpathians. The Krsteňany KRS-3 core section provides high-resolution data from the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K/Pg) transition to Lutetian/Bartonian boundary. The Upper Cretaceous sequence started from terrestrial red-beds superposed by transgressive sediments with Abathomphalus mayaroensis. The K/Pg transition is inferred in a horizon with reworked Maastrichtian microfossils and earliest Danian species of Globigerinidae. Multiple redeposition with eugubina-rich clasts implies a storm erosion and resuspension of the post K/Pg sequence during P0 - Pα Zones (approx. 300 kyr). The early Danian microfauna was initially impoverished, later enriched by first praemuricids, and after the Latest Danian Event (LDE) diversified to angulate morozovellids, igorinids and fasciculiths. Paleocene bioevents and polarity chrons imply a radiation of planktic foraminifera during transgressive cycles in the late Danian (P1, C28n), Middle Selandian (P3b, C26r/n) and late Thanetian (P4c/P5, C25n/C24r), and vacant P/C zones either in regressive cycles or during unconformities in the early Danian (P1a/C28r), Danian/Selandian transition (P2/P3a, C27r/n) and middle Thanetian (P4b/C25r). The late Thanetian transgression (Th-2) led to replacement of Assilina-rich beds (SBZ 4) by Nummulites-bearing marls (SBZ 5) at the base of Ilerdian (= LFT). The Paleocene – Eocene transition is marked by Acarinina-rich marlstones with densely muricate species (Ac. acarinata) and excursion taxa (Ac. sibaiyaensis, D. araneus), which correspond to the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). This horizon implies a warm-water productivity, eutrophication, humidity and upwelling activity (pteropods, diatoms). The hyperthermal conditions culminated at the beginning of the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO) with demise of morozovellids, intensification of hydrological cycles and enhanced continental input of siliciclastics, which progressed by accumulation of Ypresian nummulite banks and terminated by pelagic deposition with recovery of hispid morozovellids (E5 – E7 Zones, chron C23n - C22r). The lower Lutetian sequence reveals a post-EECO cooling by predominance of deep-dwelling habitats (subbotinids, turborotaliids, catapsydracids) and appearance of subtile morozovellids (M. gorrondatxensis), earliest globigerinathekids and another marker species of the E7 – E8 Zones (chron 22n - C21r). Late Lutetian warming (LLTM) is indicated by increased plankton productivity of mixed-layer habitats like strongly muricate species of anguloconical acarininids (Ac. topilensis, Ac. medizzai) and gracile species of morozovelloids (M. coronatus). The youngest part of the Krsteňany section belongs to the E11 Zone, indicating prior conditions of Middle Eocene Climatic Optimum (MECO) warming.

The Middle Eocene Lutetian Samalut formation is among the best examples of anisotropic fossiliferous rocks in Egypt, where the effect of the anisotropic Nummulite Gizehensis fossils on the petrophysical behavior can be traced. The Samalut formation has been sampled and studied at Wadi Feiran in SW Sinai. Petrographically, it is composed of two microfacies; Nummulitic packstone and Fusulinid mudstone. Tight cementation by micro to pseudosparite, aggrading neomorphism and compaction with increasing load pressure are the most important porosity-reducing factors. The anisotropy of the fossil content (λF), due to shape and orientation, and its effect on the petrophysical properties were assigned by measuring the lengths of the longest and shortest axes. Petrophysically, both microfacies are characterized by low porosity values (1.47 ≤ $${\emptyset _{{\text{He}}}}$$ ≤ 5.29%). The formation resistivity factor (F) and permeability (k) were measured in the horizontal and vertical directions (parallel and perpendicular to the bedding plane, respectively). The studied samples are characterized by high to very high formation resistivity factor (190 ≤ F ≤ 8938) and relatively very low permeability (0.012 ≤ k ≤ 0.110 md). The studied samples are characterized by fair to medium electric anisotropy ‘λE’, which is attributed to a relatively medium to fair degree of electric foliation. It has been shown that, the fossil shape anisotropy and orientation ‘λF’ (1.5 ≤ λF ≤ 3.5) is the main contributor for the electric and permeability anisotropy that corrected for the same porosity value (1.61 ≤ λEC ≤ 2.25 and 1.03 ≤ λkC ≤ 2.04; respectively). Foliation of the studied microfacies has been contributed to the orientation of the fossil remains parallel to the bedding plane. The anisotropy degree is relatively greater for the Nummulitic packstone microfacies than that of the Fusulinid mudstone. The present study refers to the possible anisotropic effect of fossil content (due to shape and orientation) on the petrophysical properties of the studied rocks which may be extended to the anisotropy of reservoir rocks on the bedding scale.

Early Eocene deposits in Tunisia are marked by clear variations in terms of facies and thickness. Each facies corresponds to an appropriate depositional environment. Shallow water deposits pass gradually offshore into deeper carbonates along a homoclinal ramp. In Central Tunisia, detailed investigation of carbonate facies under transmitted light shows a particular richness of the middle part of Early Eocene deposits in nummulithoclasts. These facies are often frequent within corrugated banks. They are overlaying Globigerina rich well-bedded limestones and overlain by nummulites and Discocyclina rich massively-bedded carbonates. Nummulithoclasts occurrence is recorded on field by an abrupt vertical change from autochthonous thinly-bedded limestones to massively-bedded fossiliferous carbonates. Change concerns structures, textures and limestones’ composition. Nummulithoclasts are associated either to planktonic micro-organisms or to benthic fauna and phosphates grains. The middle and the upper parts of the Early Eocene deposits, particularly, fossilize hummocky cross-stratifications and megaripples. Their presence advocates the role of energetic currents in sweeping nummulites from lower circatidal to upper bathyal environments. The absence of a slope break helped the settling of reworked nummulites within deeper environments. The abrupt change, nummulithoclast associations and current structures arouse reflection and make them not reliable to characterize depositional environments. However, their preferential occurrence within the middle part of Early Eocene deposits and the tight linkage with storm activity lead them to be considered as event. The large scale hummocks recorded on field suggests that nummulite fragmentation was triggered by tropical cyclones rather than humble storms. The frequent occurrence of cyclones which correspond to low pressure atmospheric systems seems in relation with a global warming enhancing the sea surface temperature.

The nummulite bank from the Eocene Ziarat Formation is described for the first time from Alborz, Iran, enhancing the record of these nummulite-rich accumulations in the Eocene of the circum-Tethyan carbonate platform. Five microfacies types have been defined within the shallow-water carbonate deposits of the Ziarat formation located in the western Alborz zone. Microfacies type 1 contains the most diverse Alveolina species associated with predominance of Nummulites A-forms. Microfacies type 2 is characterized by the presence of bivalve (oysters) fragments. Microfacies type 3 is supported by the high abundance of nummulitids. Microfacies type 4 is dominated by the occurrence of encrusting foraminifera-algal with flat growth forms that are mainly formed within the acervulinids assemblage. Finally, there is the presence of orthophragminids and nummuitids represented by microfacies type 5. Microfacies data obtained from the investigation area show that nummulite banks were formed within the back, core and fore-bank palaeoenvironments. The classification method of this paper is based on use biometric, biofabric, taphonomic and palaeoecological characteristics of larger benthic foraminifera. In addition, the calculated intraskeletal porosity by the use of numerous sections and FE-SEM images of Nummulites tests were displacement of tests in order to achieve a better understanding of paleo-conditions that occurred during sedimentation. We conclude that differences among bank frameworks suggest that small biconvex A-forms of Nummulites tests along with alveolinids were living in shallow, euphotic waters, whereas robust and ovate nummulitid tests thrived and concentrated in the intermediate (40–80 m) water with biofabrics in the min-scales, which indicates the influence of waves and currents in combination with wave-winnowing processes. More distal accumulations, the fore-bank were characterized by orthophragminid and nummulitid tests in the deeper part of the photic zone. The larger benthic foraminifera, as confirmed by Discocyclina javana (VERBEEK), D. cf. dispansa (SOWERBY), Assilina ex. gr. exponens (SOWERBY), Nummulites ex. gr. globulus)SCHAUB(, Alveolina ellipsoidalis (SCHWAGER), A. subpyrenaica (LEYMERIE), A. pisiformis (HOTTINGER), A. tumida (HOTTINGER), A. cemali (SIREL et ACAR), A. laxa (HOTTINGER), A. ex. gr. cremae)CHECCHIA-RISPOLI(, suggest the early Ilerdian-Middle Eocene age of these sediments.

In the northern part of the Bahariya Depression (Western Desert, Egypt) the Eocene carbonate succession, unconformably overlying the Cretaceous deposits, consists of three main stratigraphic units; the Naqb, Qazzun and El Hamra formations. The Eocene carbonates are relevant as they locally host a large economic iron mineralization. This work revises the stratigraphic attribution of the Eocene formations on the basis of larger benthic foraminifers from both carbonate and ironstone beds. Eight Nummulites species spanning the late Ypresian – early Bartonian (SBZ12 to SBZ17) were identified, thus refining the chronostratigraphic framework of the Eocene in that region of Central Egypt. Moreover, additional sedimentological insight of the Eocene carbonate rocks is presented. The carbonate deposits mainly represent shallow marine facies characteristic of inner to mid ramp settings; though deposits interpreted as intertidal to supratidal are locally recognized. Dating of Nummulites assemblages from the youngest ironstone beds in the mines as early Bartonian provides crucial information on the timing of the hydrothermal and meteoric water processes resulting in the formation of the iron ore mineralization. The new data strongly support a post-depositional, structurally-controlled formation model for the ironstone mineralization of the Bahariya Depression.

The Palaeogene lithostratigraphic units of the Swiss Helvetic Alps have been revised and in parts newly defined in order to harmonise the existing nomenclature. The resulting new classification scheme of the Helvetic Palaeogene includes (1) the basal Siderolithic Group, (2) the entire nummulite succession of Euthal Formation, Burgen Formation, Klimsenhorn Formation, Wildstrubel Formation, Niederhorn Formation, and Sanetsch Formation, (3) the Stad Formation, (4) the Muot-da-Rubi Formation, (5) the North Helvetic Flysch Group, as well as (6) South Helvetic and Ultrahelvetic (to ?North Penninic) flysch formations. The new classification further aims at simplifying the often very confusing nomenclature and the multitude of local names.

Since ancient times, limestone has been known as an inexpensive and reliable building material. The main problem of limestone materials in the construction of buildings is its reduced longevity due to various factors, such as wind and rain. These factors have a huge impact on the strength characteristics of the building material, so adherence to special recommendations is an important practical task. A review of literature on the problem of durability and the use of limestone is presented. With the help of experience, the strength of nummulite limestone is established. The analysis of the obtained data is made, as well as its comparison with the indices of other artificial and natural stones. The main methods of strengthening the structures made of limestone are considered at three different stages. Practical recommendations for minimizing the impact of negative factors on this material are given.

Three new species of nummulites; Nummulites minutus sp. nov., N. omanensis sp. nov. and N. schaubi sp. nov., are described and illustrated from the Eocene of Northern Oman. N. omanensis sp. nov. and N. schaubi sp. nov. are shown to range from Early to Middle Lutetian whilst N. minutus sp. nov. ranges from Late Ypresian to Early Lutetian. N. minutus sp. nov. is far smaller in all major dimensions than any species of Nummulites previously described and if found in isolation would be assumed to be very primitive and probably dated as Late Palaeocene. However, N. minutus sp. nov. was found in association with an unreworked Lutetian fauna. The commonly held belief that proloculus size and test size are smallest in the most primitive (i.e. oldest) species must therefore be treated with some degree of caution.

Deposition of Middle Eocene carbonates in the Sirt Basin in Libya has been the subject of considerable study in recent years because of the importance of sediments of this age as hydrocarbon reservoirs. The Gialo Formation is an important gas-producing reservoir in the Assumood, Sahl and other nearby fields. The gas which is generated from the gas-prone Sirt Shale source rock of the northern Ajdabiya Trough probably migrated in to the Assumood Ridge from the northeast through late Cretaceous, Paleocene and early Eocene carbonates, before being trapped beneath the Augila Shale (Upper Eocene) which is the principal regional seal in the area. This integrated study has enhanced our understanding of reservoir heterogeneity and hydrocarbon potential of the Gialo carbonates and should lead to improved exploration in the future. Reservoir quality in the Gialo Formation is a function of grain types, pore types, grain size, sorting, cementation and compaction, and predicting areas of high reservoir quality has proved difficult; exploration should be oriented to positioning wells into the main trend of the mid-ramp, nummulite accumulation. Different nummulite facies can be reservoirs depending on their diagenetic history. A diagenetic reduction in porosity must be distinguished from a lack of porosity resulting from an unfavourable depositional environment, so that exploration alternatives can be assessed. This integrated study has demonstrated the presence of suitable reservoir rocks, hydrocarbon traps and the close proximity of potential source rocks. These features should encourage further hydrocarbon exploration in the area.

The Middle Paleocene-Eocene Megasequence AP10 was deposited during a period of renewed subduction and volcanic arc activity associated with the final closure of the Neo-Tethys . It is subdivided into two sequences according to the regional unconformity at the base of the Middle-Eocene : the Paleocene-Early Eocene, in which the Aaliji and Sinjar Formations were deposited in the studied area and Middle_Late Eocene sequences, in which the Jaddala Formation was deposited in the studied area. The distinguishable facies throughout Aaliji and Jaddala Formations deposits indicated to deep marine environments that lack benthonic foraminifera in contrast with the high percentage of planktonic foraminifera, especially Morozovella and Acarinina reflect the deep marine environment with tropical to subtropical climate condition. The Sinjar Formation characterizes by abundance of the Nummulite and bioclastic-lime wackestone subfacies indicate shallow inner shelf of carbonate shelf margin environments, followed by shoaling upward sequence, with chance to aerial exposure. The systematic investigation of planktonic foraminifera enabled us to identify thirty–four species and subspecies in the studied section, the stratigraphic distribution of these planktonic foraminiferal assemblages permit the recognition of seven biozones, two biozones (P4 and P5) have been established in Aaliji Formation (Late Paleocene) and five biozones (P9-P13 ) in Jaddala Formation (Early-Middle Eocene), where the contact between the two formations is unconformable that represents an interval of about 4 My, recorded by disappearance of three biozones P6, P7 and P8. Sequence stratigraphy analysis, as calibrated by sedimentary facies and biostratigraphy, delineated two sequences in Paleocene deposits that together interpret as 3rd order sequence, and 2nd order sequence in Eocene deposits. The two sequences shows good correlation of the northern Arabian Plate with other part of the platform during Paleocene and Eocene.

The Ziyarat Formation is a Late Paleocene to Middle Eocene carbonate sequence, located in the north of Tochal Village (south-east of Tehran). The Ziyarat Formation with a total thickness of 212.5 m conformably overlies the Fajan conglomerate and is overlain by greenish tuffaceous siltstone of the Karj Formation. Petrographic studies have led to the recognition of 11 microfacies. Of these microfacies, five belong to inner ramp, four belong to middle ramp and two are located in the outer ramp. Due to the great diversity and abundance of large benthic foraminifera (e.g., Nummulites, Alveolina, Discocyclina), the Ziyarat Formation represents an example of “foraminifera-dominated carbonate ramp settings”. Paleobathymetry, light level and water energy were determined during deposition of Ziyarat carbonates based on the test shape and size variation of different types of benthic foraminifera and other components in different facies. Micritization, cementation, compaction, dissolution, dolomitization and fracturing are important diagenetic processes in the Ziyarat Formation, occurring in marine to meteoric and burial diagenetic environments. Geochemical studies indicate that Ziyarat carbonates were deposited in a shallow warm-water sub-tropical environment and aragonite was the original carbonate mineralogy with mean Sr values of 3,470 ppm. It should be noted that the maximum Sr content in abiotic calcite is 1,000 ppm. In Ziyarat limestone, dissolution as leaching is the most important diagenetic event in the evolution of porosity, particularly where Nummulite and other benthic foraminifera are abundant. This may indicate that the original carbonate mineralogy of Nummulites might be aragonite, rather than low-Mg calcite. In the Jahrum Formation of Iran and in the El Garia Formation in north-east of Libya, the widespread moldic porosity in Nummulite beds enhanced the reservoir potential of the carbonate sequence. Thus, it is proposed that the original carbonate mineralogy of nummulitid shells may be varied in different environments, and those with metastable mineralogy are excellent for forming hydrocarbon reservoirs. Bivariate plots of Mn versus Sr/Ca and δ18O values illustrated that Ziyarat limestones were affected by open diagenetic system with high water/rock interaction. Early burial diagenetic temperature calculation based on heaviest oxygen isotope values of micrite and δw of Eocene seawater of −0.85 SMOW showed that temperature was around 39 °C. Cathodluminescence studies of carbonate cements illustrated dull luminescence, because these carbonates were affected mainly by burial diagenesis. This statement is confirmed by δ18O and δ13C isotope evidences. Based on different facies and evidences such as absence of reefal facies, calciturbidite deposits, the occurrence of widespread tidal flat deposits and abundant micrites in all microfacies indicate that the Ziyarat Formation was deposited in a homoclinal carbonate ramp environment. In addition, many researchers suggested that due to extreme global warming during the Paleocene–Eocene time, platform margin coral reefs declined in low latitude and heterozoan calcitic foraminifers became abundant and, thus, widespread carbonate ramp systems developed.

The genesis of nummulite banks remains a poorly understood topic and the aim of this work is to shed light on it by observing the hydrodynamic behavior of selected larger foraminifera collected from both bank and non-bank deposits. Entrainment and settling velocity of both recent and fossil larger foraminifera were measured using a flume channel and settling tube. Both velocities give information about the reaction of foraminiferal shells to different hydrodynamic conditions affecting their capability to build bank-like sedimentary structures. To assess entrainment, experiments were performed on different substrates to simulate bed load transport on smooth surfaces, fine sand, coarse sand, and bioclastic substrates. Thirty-four recent and 49 fossil shells of foraminifera were used; recent taxa used are Operculina ammonoides, Heterostegina depressa, and Palaeonummulites venosus and fossil taxa used are Nummulites perforatus, N. fabianii, and N. tavertetensis (only A forms were used in this study)...

Following introduction of the term ‘nummulite bank’, there has been debate regarding interpretation of these types of deposits as autochthonous (automicrite) or allochthonous (detrital micrite). These banks are made up of large foraminifera and ill-defined fine-grained components. The fine-grained components consist mainly of micrites. The recognition of automicrite has deep implications for the synsedimentary cementation and stabilization of the bank. In order to distinguish between automicrite and detrital micrite, the nanomorphology, geochemistry and organic matter remains in the microfacies of a nummulite bank in the Middle Eocene of Monte Saraceno (Gargano, Southern Italy) were analysed. Optical and scanning electron microscope investigations showed that the micrites have been recrystallized to aggrading microsparite. Epifluorescence observations on selected micrite/microsparite areas with peloidal texture revealed the presence of organic matter. Scanning electron microscope analyses on epifluorescent micrites showed that the microbial peloids have smaller crystal sizes than those in organic matter-depleted areas. The geochemical characterization of extracted organic matter, performed through the functional group analyses by Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, shows strong prevalence of the aromatic fraction over the aliphatic and carboxylic ones. These characteristics of organic compounds indicate both their thermal maturation and their likely derivation from degradation of bacterial communities. The local presence of peloidal anti-gravity textures, bright epifluorescence and organic molecules in clotted peloidal areas suggest that the metabolic activity of microbial communities could have induced precipitation of these micrites and, consequently, the syndepositional cementation of the nummulite bank. This type of cementation can rapidly stabilize sediments and promote the depositional bank geometry.

Eocene nummulitic limestones represent potential reservoir rocks for oil accumulations in Central Asia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean region. Examination of their lithology and sedimentation settings is of great practical significance. This communication is dedicated to the characteristics of carbonate facies with Early–Middle Eocene nummulites developed in the Mountainous Crimea. Their best outcrops, which form a narrow band extending W–E, occur in the Mount Inkerman, Krasnyi Mak Settlement, Mount Suvlu-Kaya, Skalistoe Settlement, Simferopol City, Litvinenkovo Settlement (Zuya River), Mount Ak-Kaya, Prolom Settlement, and Nasypnoe Settlement (Feodosiya City) areas (Fig. 1). The rocks were examined with the unaided eye and under a microscope in thin sections. Their petrophysical properties were determined by analytical methods. Classification of carbonate rocks based on their primary sedimentary textures after R.J. Dunham was used when describing the rocks under the microscope [Wilson, 1980]. Based on nannofossils and foraminifers, the nummulite limestones constituting the Simferopol Formation are estimated to be late Ypreasian–early Lutetian in age [Zakrevskaya, 1993].

Mass-transport deposits (MTDs) are well developed on the slope of the Eocene Sobrarbe delta (Ainsa Basin, Spanish Pyrenees) and are studied in order to improve the understanding of soft sediment deformation in MTDs. The five examples illustrate the distinction between the extensional zone and the compressional domain. The upslope domain is illustrated by a set of three stacked nummulite-rich slid layers. They are deformed by load structures suggesting density inversion and sinking of nummulite gravel down into the underlying silty-shaly material. Post-sliding deformation is evidenced from small-scale roll-overs, neptunian dykes and syn-sedimentary normal faults. Slow extensive deformation has continued in the substratum of the scar after the main sliding episode. Soft-sediment deformation is less obvious in large displaced blocks where deformation is limited at the periphery of the blocks. Imbricate thrusts, formed on the side of a sliding layer, illustrate structures related to displacement. Striations on the thrust planes indicate that sliding occurred along the strike of the imbricate slices. The km scale Castellazo outcrop shows slump folds resting over a basal debris flow.

The Lower Eocene (Cuisian) deposits of Pesciara di Bolca in northern Italy represent one of the most important Konservat-Lagerstatte in the world, well known since the 16th century. Over a period of around 500 years, numerous high-quality fossils have been found in the Pesciara and nearby olistoliths. In order to explain the exceptional nature of these finds, the relationship between the Pesciara and the nearby Monte Postale successions are considered in terms of their facies and depositional environments. The sites are approximately 300 m apart, but the presence of volcanics, the local tectonics, and the dense vegetation make it difficult to correlate between the two. The complete M. Postale succession has been studied from the Maastrichtian Scaglia Rossa basinal lime mudstones to the Cuisian bioclastic grainstones. Volcanic activity that began in the Late Paleocene provided topographic highs that allowed the development of Ilerdian (Spilecco Limestone) and Cuisian (Nummulite Limestone) platforms carbonates. The Ilerdian platforms were successively dismantled. The Cuisian platforms included the Pesciara olistolith and the main part of the M. Postale succession. Within the latter, three lithofacies were identified: massive bioclastic packstone (lithofacies 1), bedded bioclastic packstone (lithofacies 2), and laminated lime mudstone with fish and plants (lithofacies 3). Lithofacies 1 is absent in the nearby Pesciara olistolith, whereas lithofacies 2 and 3 are interdigitated in different arrangements in the Pesciara and M. Postale. The palaeoenvironmental model envisaged for the Pesciara-M. Postale system consists of a coastal lagoon in a subtropical zone, which is bordered by an emergent area (most likely represented by a volcanic archipelago surrounded by a rather deep basin), and a carbonate buildup, in which larger benthic foraminifera played a fundamental part. Brief anoxic episodes occurred within the more distal back-reef areas, close to the center of the lagoon, which enabled the preservation of the fossil fish.

Early Ilerdian (Early Eocene, Shallow Benthic Zones 5 and 6) carbonate systems of the Pyrenees shelf were deposited after a time of severe climatic (‘Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, PETM’) and phylogenetic (‘Larger Foraminifer Turnover’) changes. They reflect the radiation of nummulitid, alveolinid, and orbitolitid larger foraminifera after remarkable biotic changes at the end of the Paleocene, and announce their subsequent flourishing in the Middle Eocene. A paleoenvironmental model for tropical carbonate environments of this particular time interval is provided herein. During the Early Ilerdian, the inner and middle ramp deposits from Minerve, Campo and Serraduy revealed the end-member of a tropical carbonate factory with carbonate production dominated by the end-members of biotically (photo-autotrophic skeletal) controlled and biotically induced carbonate precipitation. Inner platform environments are dominated by alveolinids and in part by orbitolitids, middle platform environments are dominated by nummulitids. Corals are present, but they do not form reefs, which is a typical feature for the Eocene. Nummulite shoal complexes, which are well-known from the Middle Eocene are also absent during the studied Early Ilerdian interval, which may reflect the early evolutionary stage of this group.

The middle–upper Eocene sequence at Gebel Na’alun, southeastern Fayum yielded 21 ostracod and four nummulite species. Out of these, two new ostracod species namely Bairdia crolifai and Paracypris naalunensis are described. Four ostracod assemblages are distinguishable; the lower three are assigned to the Bartonian and the upper one is Priabonian. The nummulites exist in three stratigraphic horizons represented from base to top by “ Nummulites ” aff. pulchellus, Nummulites decrouezae with Nummulites cavelieri (Bartonian) and Nummulites aff. fabianii (Priabonian).

The Hasdrubal field (offshore Tunisia) comprises an Early Eocene shallow-marine nummulitic limestone reservoir (the El Garia Formation) sourced by deep-marine mudstones and limestones of the generally age-equivalent Bou Dabbous Formation. The field is located on a NNW-SSE trending horst between a series of en-echelon normal to oblique faults, and is dip-closed except to the north where a stratigraphic pinch-out into the Bou Dabbous Formation is inferred. Middle Eocene shales and dense limestones of the Cherahil Formation form the main seal. The El Garia Formation reservoirs significant volumes of hydrocarbons in Tunisia and Libya. A detailed micropalaeontological and nannofossil study has been undertaken of the El Garia Formation and the immediately over- and underlying formations which together form the Metlaoui Group, using subsurface data from the Hasdrubal field. This has permitted a detailed chronostratigraphic and sequence stratigraphic framework to be developed, including the recognition of three flooding events, which can partly be calibrated with second-order sequences, thus permitting the correlation of discrete reservoir units across the field. A further six microfaunal events are recognized between the Chouabine Formation and the “Compact Micrite Member” within the Metlaoui Group. Previous depositional models for the El Garia Formation are discussed and a new model is proposed. The model partly explains why a number of wells drilled along the El Garia nummulite “bank” trend have failed to encounter the nummulite reservoir fades, and why, even where this fades was encountered, the limestones were frequently tight and/or contained limited hydrocarbons. It is also suggested that proximity to source is a critical factor, with the development of dissolution porosity by acidic pore waters migrating in advance of hydrocarbons. This is critical for enhancing reservoir quality and thus promoting the capacity to reservoir hydrocarbons, as indicated by the location of existing discoveries.

Eocene nummulite accumulations, also referred to as nummulite "banks", form important hydrocarbon reservoirs in Tunisia and Libya and may constitute exploration targets in other parts of North Africa, the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Porosities commonly average 10-20% and permeabilities 10-50md. Foraminifera of the genus Nummulites may comprise up to 98% of the bioclasts in these carbonate reservoirs, although only one or two species may be present. The absence of associated fauna is generally taken to indicate an oligotrophic depositional environment.

Hasler Claude-Alain, Davaud Eric. External geometiy of nummulite accumulation within a sequence stratigraphy framework (Sidi El Itayem hydrocarbon field, Ypresian, Tunisia). In: Géologie Méditerranéenne. Tome 28, numéro 1-2, 2001. Anatomy of Carbonate Bodies / Anatomie des corps carbonates. International Meeting / Colloque international. Marseille, 9-12 mai 2001, France, sous la direction de Marc Floquet, Jérôme Hennuy et Jean-Pierre Masse. pp. 89-92.

A nummulite bank located at the very base of the Muweilih Formation, cropping out to the east of Beni Mazar, has yielded a new species: Nummulites remissus. Planktic foraminifera from beds enclosing this nummulitic horizon indicate that it belongs in the lower Lutetian (Hantkenina aragonensis or basal Globigerinatheka subconglobata subconglobata Zones). All the morphologic characters of N. remissus suggest that it has descended from N. gracilis Schaub , 1981 , so far recorded from lower Eocene rocks.

This paper discusses isotopes in larger foraminiferal calcite from two contrasting settings: modern Florida Bay, dominated by Archaiadae (the “winners”); and the Upper Eocene Barton Clay of England, locally dominated by Nummulites (“the losers”). The archaiads (plus peneroplids and soritids) were mainly collected from Thalassia leaves. They yield signatures that closely reflect strong isotopic gradients in sea water across Florida Bay and the outer patch reefs. Isotopic signatures of eurytopic Androsina lucasi record extreme conditions to the north of the bay, which includes δ 13 C evidence for much nutrient-regeneration. Such tolerance of relatively eutrophic conditions may explain the capacity of Archaiadae for survival in the Caribbean region during the Neogene. Isotopes of Nummulites prestwichianus from the basal Bartonian compare more closely with data from living nummulite Heterostegina . δ 18 O indicates a yearly growth cycle under tropical bottom water temperatures with an annual range of approximately 2.5°C. Carbon isotopes show a trend towards heavier values with growth, here related to decelerating rates of calcification and, perhaps, the additional effects of test-thickening on carbon isotope fractionation by endosymbionts. The nummulitic data indicate a much more stable carbon and nutrient cycle in the basal Barton Clay than seen in the Florida Bay mudmound assemblage. This is consistent with their presumed stenotopic and oligotrophic life habit. It could well explain their vulnerability to extinction after the mid-Eocene, and the post-Aquitanian decline of larger rotaliids and reefs in the Caribbean region.

The determination of depositional history and hydrocarbon potential of the Paleocene to Late Eocene carbonates of the Jahrum Formation in Gisakan Mountain, 10 Km east of the Borazjan City (Zagros), and the Ziyarat Formation of Upper Paleocene to Middle Eocene carbonate sequences in Alborz fold belt in Iran were the objective of this study. Major hydrocarbon sources in Iran are within the folded and thrusted Zagros belt in west of Iran. Almost all hydrocarbon reservoirs in Zagros basin are located within the carbonate anticline structures with high porosity and permeability due to many small to large fractures. Thus, for accumulation, distribution and fluid migrations in carbonate hydrocarbon reservoirs, the depositional history of these formations are very important to study. In both Jahrum and Zeyarat formations, Nummulites are widespread and it is believed that original mineralogy of Nummulites are low-Mg calcite. However, field and subsurface observations and thin section studies show that both Jahrum and Zeyarat formations have excellent reservoir potential due to the presence of large amounts of moldic porosity in Nummulitic facies. This may indicate that original carbonate mineralogy of Nummulites are aragonite which would be dissolved due to meteoric diagenesis during the transformation of aragonite to calcite, leading to dominant molding porosity in both formations. This is the first time, it is reported Nummulitic facies has reservoir potential for hydrocarbon accumulation due to dissolution of original carbonate mineralogy in Cenozoic carbonate sequences in Iran. Result of this study can be applied to other geological settings with Nummulitic facies. Based on distribution and abundance of large benthic foraminifera, ancient sedimentary environment of the Jahrum Formation has been reconstructed. Gradual decreases of the sea level and hence the distribution of large benthic foraminifera resulted in deposition of 6 sedimentary facies along the innermiddle to outer carbonate ramp system in the Jahrum Formation. These facies, from deep to shallow parts of the basin, include argillaceous carbonates containing planktonic foraminifera that were deposited in a hemipelagic to pelagic environment.

The Scaglia Toscana represents a stratigraphic unit belonging to the Tuscan Domain of the Northern Apennines. Such a stratigraphic unit results lithologically heterogeneous, and is representative of a very long time span (from the Early Cretaceous to the Oligocene) during which very important geological events took place, such as the convergence and collisional events giving rise to the edification of the Northern Apennines orogene. We have studied several key outcrops of the Scaglia Toscana exposed in the Rapolano Terme area (Southern Tuscany, Northern Apennines) in order to contribute to the reconstruction of the depositional setting and palaeogeographical features of a sector of the Tuscan Domain from the Cretaceous to the Early Miocene, and to hypothesise a possible geodynamic evolution. The Scaglia Toscana exposed in the Rapolano Terme area has been deeply investigated through lithostragraphic and biostratigraphic analyses mainly carried out in three key areas indicated in the fig. 1: 1) the Podere Cetinaia-Podere Monte Petroso section; 2) the Podere Le Rossole section; and 3) the Modanella-Podere Campo d’Aia section. From the top (represented by the overlying Macigno Fm) to the bottom (Maiolica Fm) we have recognized three litostratigraphic units: 1. Claystones and calcarenites ( Argilliti e calcareniti di Dudda ), containing lenses of nummulite bearing calcarenites and calcirudites («Nummulitico», Calcareniti di Montegrossi ). The thickness ranges from 50 to 100 m; Middle-Late Eocene. 2. Silty marls and claystones ( Marne siltose ed argilliti marnose rosse di Podere Le Rossole ) comparable for the age and stratigraphic position with the Marne del Sugame described in the Chianti Mts. The thickness does not exceed 10 m; Early-Middle Eocene. 3. Argilliti di Brolio consisting of three lithofacies: BRLa - manganesiferous radiolarites (thickness from 5 to 10 m); BRLb - siliceous siltstones (thickness of about 10 m); BRLc - red marly clays (thickness from 6 to 8 m); Albian-Turonian. The boundary separating the Argilliti di Brolio from the overlying Marne siltose ed argilliti marnose rosse di Podere Le Rossole is representative of a time gap about 7Ma long (from 40 to 47Ma). According to Canuti & Marcucci (1967) we exclude the emersion during this time span, but we support for: i) the reduction of the sedimentation and/or; ii) submarine erosion induced by tectonic instability. Such possible hypotheses can be confirmed by the fact that the gap affects different stratigraphic horizons of the Argilliti di Brolio , and the sedimentation of the Marne siltose ed argilliti marnose rosse di Podere Le Rossole started diachronically. The sedimentary environment of the Marne siltose ed argilliti marnose rosse di Podere Le Rossole is pelagic-hemipelagic, characterised by Foraminifera bearing marly and pelitic sediments. The occurrence of thin bedded calcarenites indicates the formation of a turbidite system, mainly carbonate. Such a turbidite system typifies the overlying succession: the Argilliti e calcareniti di Dudda with interbedded Nummulites bearing calcarenites and calcirudites ( Calcareniti di Montegrossi ). The stratigraphic contact between the Argilliti e calcareniti di Dudda and the Marne siltose ed argilliti marnose rosse di Podere Le Rossole lithostratigraphic units is gradual and continuous, and is characterized by the frequency and thickness increase of the turbite beds, as well as by the progressive appearance of the reddish color, moreover characterizing the overlying Marne siltose ed argilliti marnose rosse di Podere Le Rossole . The sedimentological features of the Argilliti e calcareniti di Dudda suggest a radical change of the sedimentary environment. In fact, the hemipelagic sediments were substituted by the turbidite systems. The turbidites are characterized by graded beds containing Eocene planktonic Foraminifera indicating an intrabasinal reworking of penecontemporaneous sediments. Contrarily, the calcarenites of the upper part of the succession are characterized by Cretaceous planktonic Foraminifera being bioclasts indicating an extrabasinal origin. This is indicative for the development of a carbonate turbidite system fed by Cretaceous sediments. The uppermost part of the succession is newly typified by the occurrence of calcarenite beds with intrabasinal Eocene planktonic Foraminifera. Such a lithological assemblage and palaeontological containts became a recurrent feature for the overlying Nummulites bearing calcarenites and calcirudites («Nummulitico», Calcareniti di Montegrossi ). Furthermore, these latter are characterized by Eocene benthonic Foraminifera suggesting the development of one or more lobes of a submarine fan channels fed by carbonate platforms. The Nummulite bearing calcarenites are characterized by a trend thinning-fining upward, and gradually pass to the Argilliti e calcareniti di Dudda , indicating the deactivation of the lobe fan system. Such a succession passes to the Macigno siliciclastic sandstone (Macigno Fm). In sum, we hyphotesise that the embryonal foredeep system of the Northern Apennines could be developed since the Middle-Late Eocene with the activation of a carbonate turbidite system ( Argilliti e calcareniti di Dudda plus the Nummulites bearing calcarenites) successively evolved in a siliciclastic turbidite system represented by the Macigno Fm. The sedimentary gap recorded within the Scaglia Toscana succession could indicate the records of the beginning of the tectonic activity which affected the Tuscan Domain for a long time, related to the development of the Northern Apennines foredeep system.

The purpose of this study is to look at well data from Libya and adjacent areas of North Africa to study changes in the abundance and diversity of nummulites from the Late Paleocene to Early Oligocene, in order to further evaluate tectonic vs. climatic controls on the timing of nummulite speciation.

The Great Pyramid in Giza is the most researched and most recognisable object from the ancient world. Observations of its walls showed difference in colour of some limestone blocks used for building its core. Different colour of blocks results from the amount of fossil shells contained in the limestone. The large number of fossils not only give the limestone its colour but are also responsible for its hardness. Blocks made of this type of limestone constitute a triangle in the walls of the pyramid. Precision of masonry and their fitting is better than that of blocks made of other kind of limestone. The triangles in the pyramid wall were made from a special type of limestone. The plateau consists mainly of middle Eocene nummulite limestone which belongs to the Mokkatam formation. The limestone is partly overlain by late Eocene limestone of the Maadzi formation. (Lehner 2004). The main purpose of this paper is to determine the mineral-petrographic composition of the blocks which were used to build the pyramid. Due to the insufficient amount of the veneer blocks, the study focuses on the stones which were used to build the core of the pyramid. (Folk & Campbell 1992). It was discovered that better preserved blocks compose the central parts of the pyramid walls. The best preserved blocks are observed in the first layer. They lay in the distance of 40 m. from the corners of the pyramid and they were put in the central part of the pyramid’s foundation. In each subsequent layer their number is decreasing from the both sides. And thus, occurrence of this type of limestone ends up with the single block in the 19th layer, in the central part of the wall. These blocks are lighter and precisely fitted. They arrange in a characteristic way and create a structure of a triangle shape. The same elements are visible in the next three walls of the Great Pyramid at Giza. Discovery of triangles in four walls of the Great Pyramid is its one more puzzle. The triangles have gone unnoticed through the ages. After reading the article each person will be able to see them without a problem, even on old photographs. (Zalewski 2004, 2006) Concluding, the triangles with the base in the foundation of the Great Pyramid at Giza and their sides in its walls are visible in the four walls of the pyramid. From mentioned triangles the most visible is the triangle located in the western wall, topped with a single stone. It is in the 19th layer of the stones, 16 m 65 cm high. According to the calculations the angle of all mentioned triangles in its top amounts 155° The length of its base is about 150 meters.

The Lower Eocene carbonate succession in the Eastern Desert between Qena and Sohag (Upper Egypt) exhibits four major coastal subenvironments. The tidal flat, oyster nearshore and nummulite bank facies form the Thebes Formation and the open-shelf lagoon and bars (shoals) facies build up the Drunka Formation. During the Early Eocene, pure and dolomitized lime muds with ostracodes accumulated on the tidal flats of regional gentle-inclined seaward shelf platform in the E and S of the area. Penecontemporaneously, the larger foraminifera (nummulites, operculines and discocyclines) constructed bank facies between the normal and storm wave base. During that time, an active external influx of reworked older Paleocene planktonic foraminifera took place across the tidal inlets and distributary channels. At the same time, codiacean and dasycladacean algal open shelf lagoon facies (with intermittent water energy) dominated the parts in the NW. On the outer shelf platform a series of submarine oolitic and bioclastic bars accumulated under high water energy conditions. The bars were developed with their axes trending NE-SW, suggesting a paleocoast strike running in the same direction. The fluctuations in mean sea level in the study area are demonstrated by models exhibiting the evolution of the sedimentary basin during the Early Eocene. Four relatively major phases of transgressive episodes separated by very short durations of regressions are recorded. It is believed that, the Early Eocene sea level changes in Upper Egypt have been controlled by a true eustatic change of the global sea level without significant regional tectonic events during that time.

Forty eight high resolution stratigraphic sections and more than 850 thin sections were used to study the Eocene of Cyrenaica. Sections are located on the northern limb of Al Jabal al Akhdar inversion anticlinorium that formed a series of submerged Cretaceous structural highs and islands. These played an important role in the development of the Eocene nummulitic ramp complex. Evolved regionally parallel facies belts consisted of outer ramp mudstone clinoforms and mass transported facies, mid-ramp nummulite facies and inner ramp miliolid-orbitolites, coral-coralgal and skeletal facies respectively. Progradation of these belts led to an upward shallowing mega-sequence constituting Apollonia and Dernah Formations. It consisted of three correlatable nummulite dominated sequences in Ras al Hilal area. The top two of which pass eastward into structurally controlled reefal-coralgal-discocyclinid dominated facies. Reworking of nummulite bodies by waves and currents over structural highs led to improvement of primary porosity. Syndepositional reactivation of the structures not only triggered mass transport of the mid-ramp deposits, but also controlled nummulite body geometry, internal heterogeneities and diagenesis by spatially shifting high-energy and subaerial exposure zones through time. There no single nummulite ramp model that would characterize this active inversion setting, as depositional parameters changes in space and time.

P023 EL GUERIA FORMATION IN LIBYA OFFSHORE FACIES AND RESERVOIR COMPARISON BETWEEN C137 AND NC41 WELLS 1 P.RONCHI 1 B. CALINE 2 P.MASSE 2 AND S. CANTALOUBE 2 1 ENI Exploration and Production Division Via Emilia 1 20097 San Donato Milanese (MI) Italy 2 TotalFinaElf Geoscience Technologies avenue Larribau 64018 Pau Cedex France Introduction The main reservoir of the carbonate series in offshore Libya is represented by the nummulite facies of the El Gueria Formation of Eocene age (late Ypresian to early Lutetian). Thanks to the exchange of geological data between TFE and ENI regarding some of Bouri field wells

Les calcaires ypresiens à nummulites présentent un important potentiel pétrolier, en particulier en Tunisie centrale. Ce travail comprend deux études parallèles: sur le terrain, dans le massif du Djebel Ousselat (région de Kairouan) et sur les données du champ pétrolier de Sidi el Itayem (SIT), près de la ville de Sfax. Les reconstitutions en trois dimensions des corps sédimentaires pour les deux cas d'étude ainsi que pour les niveaux diagénétiques et les "rock types" pour le réservoir principal de SIT ont été effectués. Le Djebel Ousselat montre des affinités avec un système détritique, avec des corps progradants épais et des niveaux condensés riches en dents de requin au sommet des corps. Au contraire, Sidi el Itayem montre plus d'affinités avec un modèle de type production carbonaté "in situ", avec développement des corps pendant les périodes de bas niveau marin relatif et durant les phases transgressives.

Nummulitic limestones in the Gulf of Gabes and onshore Central Tunisia i.e. the Early Eocene (Ypresian) El Garia Formation and the Mid-Eocene Reineche Member are generally interpreted as hydrodynamic storm-derived nummulite accumulations. Such models try to explain the characteristic irregular bedding and scattering of nummulites by the occurrence of chaotic turbulent current patterns during storm events.

The most important larger foraminifera in the study of the Eocene/Oligocene boundary are the nummulites, especially Nummulites intermedius . However, the revision of the nummulite faunas of the Hungarian transitional Eocene-Oligocene formations ( Nummulites-Discocyclina-Lithothamnium Limestone, Bryozoan Limestone, Buda Marl, Harshegy Sandstone) revealed that N. intermedius is absent in these faunas, which emphasizes the importance of other nummulites and larger foraminiferal species. The studies on the transitional sequences and their larger foraminiferal faunas from the Buda Mountains, Bakony Mountains, the Sagvar-Balatonbozsok-Tabajd-Csakvar Belt, the Nagyegyhaza and Dorog Basins, Kosd and the Matra and the Bukk Mountains are discussed. The most complete transitional sequences appear in the Buda Mountains. The studies on the larger foraminiferal fauna of these sections resulted in the discovery of a Nummulites species, which gives important data concerning the Eocene/Oligocene boundary. This can now be drawn between the Harshegy Sandstone of Varerdohegy at Solymar on the basis of N. vascus , a characteristic Lower and Middle Oligocene species, and the underlying Nummulites-Discocylina-Lithothamnium Limestone, on the basis of N. fabianii, N. chavannesi, N. pulchellus and N. incrassatus , belonging to the Upper Eocene. In addition to the stratigraphically most important nummulitids and lepidocyclinids, the spatial distribution of other larger foraminifera from these transitional formations is discussed. Finally, a comparison is made between the most important boundary faunas in Hungary and elsewhere. The Hungarian larger foraminiferal faunas show a conspicuous agreement with the Mediterranean faunas. From the latter, those of the Priabonian stratotype and the sections near Cluj-Napoca, Romania, are reviewed in detail.

In a former paper published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London (vol. ii. p. 405, May 1846), I stated that the limestone containing abundantly the Nummulites Mantelli , Morton, which occurs near Suggesville, Clarksville, and other places between the rivers Alabama and Tombecbee, in the State of Alabama, was a member of the Eocene tertiary group, and that so far from constituting any part of the cretaceous formation, as had formerly been imagined, it holds in reality a place high up in the Eocene series of the South. In the same memoir I gave a section extending from Claiborne through Suggesville and Macon to the west of Clarksville, Alabama, in which the position of the so-called nummulitic limestone was explained. It was stated to be newer than all the beds of the well-known Claiborne Bluff, and I mentioned that “the bones of the gigantic cetacean called Zeuglodon by Owen were everywhere found in Clarke County, in a limestone below the level of the nummulitic rock and above the beds which contain the greater number of perfectly preserved eocene shells, such as Cardita planicosta and others.”

There appear to be at least three species of nummulites (giving six forms) in the rocks from Vernitza. These are:- 1. (Pl. XXV, figs. 1-3.) A large nummulite having a width of from 45 to 50 millimetres, and a thickness of from 5 to 10 mm.It is microspheric, and there are eleven to twelve turns of the spiral in a radius of 3 mm. The f i l e t s cloisonnaires are sinuo-striate and delicate. The chamber-ratio is irregular: . The septal angle is about 45. The spire is irregular after the first few turns, and the line of the spiral duplicates and coalesces occasionally. This nummulite is identified as Nummulites Dufrenoyi , D9Archiac, form B. De la Harpe refers N. Dufrenoyi to the N. complanata of Lamarck. It undoubtedly belongs to the complanata -group ; but it is quite sufficiently distinct, as D9Archiac has shown, and the true N. complanata nowhere occurs in these rock-specimens. Moreover, the 9companion9-form of the species differs from N. Tchihatcheffi , D9Archiac, which is the 9companion9 of N. complanata . 2. (Pl. XXV, fig. 4.) A moderate-sized nummulite varying in width from 8 to 10 millimetres, and having a thickness of about 5 mm. Megalospheric, with six turns of the spiral in a radius of 3 mm. Filets cloisonnaires sinuo-striate and rather coarse. Spire fairly regular. The chamber-ratio is rathetr irregular: Surface non-tuberculate, but the 9pillars9 are visible as white specks on a vernished surface.Septal angle = about 50

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Ce travail comporte quatre grandes parties 1 - une partie intitulée "les Marnes bleues nummulitiques : stratigraphie et sédimentologie" où je traiterai pour l'essentiel d'observations de terrain. 2 - une description de la macrofaune récoltée comprenant une étude systématique et une analyse biométrique de quelques espèces. 3 -une étude taphonomique des gisements permettra de situer la faune dans son contexte stratigraphique et sédimentologique. 4 - une partie intitulée "Paléoécologie" ou je tenterai une reconstitution du milieu de vie des organismes étudiés, en m'appuyant sur les données de terrain et les renseignements autécologiques concernant les formes affines actuelles., pas de résumé

Biofabric interpretation of skeletal accumulations consisting of "biologically standardized" nummulite tests (larger foraminifera) is based upon (1) the ratio of small-bodied A-forms (megalospheric) and large-bodied B-forms (microspheric), and (2) on their packing and imbrication features. In the Eocene Mokattam Formation of Egypt, Nummulites gizehensis occurs in limestones with four basic biofabrics. In wackestones, the nummulites "float" throughout the matrix, and A-forms strongly dominate over B-forms, approximating the ratio reported for undisturbed assemblages. Packstones, however, reflect various degrees of sedimentary reworking and winnowing of the original substratum by physical processes. For packstones with edge-wise imbrication and A-forms strongly dominating over B-forms, in situ winnowing of fine-grained matrix by waves can be inferred. In contrast, packstones composed of imbricated B-forms suggest hydraulic sorting and selective removal of A-forms by currents. Packstones composed almost entirely of A-forms represent transport-sorted allochthonous deposits. Biofabric analysis thus allows us to understand better the dynamics of skeletal accumulations such as nummulite banks, whose commonly complex and extensive buildups can form hydrocarbon reservoirs.

The concept of event-stratification may successfully be applied to two types of bioclastic deposits in the Eocene of Egypt: 1. Middle Eocene Gizehensis-Bed: physical processes (“winnowing events”) are significantly involved in structuring and in-situ accumulating nummulitic sediment bodies. 2. Upper Eocene shell beds: reveal a complex series of erosion and colonisation events over a certain time interval, each “physical process” being followed by a “biological response”.