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Personal beliefs and attitudes about body weight and body image are important determinants of weight management practices. To inform efforts to prevent and treat obesity among autistic adults, this study examined how autistic adults perceive weight management, body weight, and body image. Eleven adults participated in semi-structured interviews. Consistent with an interpretive paradigm, an interpretative phenomenological analysis methodology was employed, resulting in four themes: (a) "Mental and physical health: direct and indirect interactions," (b) "ASD traits and health-related behaviors," (c) "Body dissatisfaction: Unrealistic ideals and misperceptions," and (d) "Sources of information." This study's findings have several implications for research and practice. First, participants viewed overweight and obesity as just one component of a holistic perspective of health. A dynamic, bidirectional relationship between mental health and physical health, including overweight/obesity was described, leading us to posit that the promotion of mental health is crucial for the promotion of overall health among autistic adults. Second, body dissatisfaction was pervasive among participants in this sample. This finding requires future research as it may be an important target for intervention, with relevance for mental health and weight management practices. Finally, interactions with medical professionals regarding weight management were perceived to be inadequate.

Adults with intellectual disability (ID) have significantly lower levels of fitness compared to the general population. The study examined the effects of a multicomponent familiarization intervention, consisting of a visual activity schedule and a video-enhanced system of least-to-most prompting, both displayed via an iPad, on the acquisition of resistance-training exercise tasks by adults with ID, aged 18-44 years, in a community fitness center. Twelve participants were randomly allocated to an experimental group (EG) and 12 to an active control group (CG). ANOVA revealed EG correctly and independently performed a significantly greater number of steps of four resistance-training exercise tasks compared with CG, relative to preintervention levels (p < 0.01). The intervention was effective in promoting functional performance of resistance-training exercise tasks among adults with ID.

Quality physical education can play a critical role in helping students become more active, physically literate, and develop the skills and interests to remain physically active throughout their lives. The healthy, physically active student is more likely to be academically motivated, alert, and successful in school. Unfortunately, findings from multiple studies interviewing students with disabilities suggest that students with disabilities are often less active and feel more socially separated from the class compared to their classmates without disabilities in general physical education. Clearly, more research is needed to identify best practices or strategies for creating a positive learning environment in physical education for all students. This paper examines future research considerations based on what we currently know about the physical education experiences and concerns of students with disabilities as well as concerns voiced by general physical educators. Considerations include: (1) What evidence do we have and what evidence do we need to show students with 3 disabilities are receiving appropriate physical education whether included or in a separate setting? (2) What evidence do we have and what evidence do we need to show that physical educators are properly trained and qualified to provide physical education to students with disabilities? (3) What evidence do we have and what evidence do we need to show that particular curricular and teaching models are effective when including students with disabilities in general physical education and when working in small groups or one-on-one? (4) What evidence do we have and what evidence do we need to show that students with disabilities are socially part of the class and not simply physically present.

Musculoskeletal fitness is important for adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) to maintain cardiovascular fitness, functional independence, and work task performance, and to reduce the risk of chronic diseases and other disabilities. However, adults with ID typically have significantly lower musculoskeletal fitness compared with their peers without a disability. Appropriate instructional strategies are needed to facilitate their acquisition and maintenance of musculoskeletal fitness. In this study, three adults with moderate ID, aged 19-20 years, were selected to evaluate the effects of a multi-component treatment package that included a video-enhanced system of least-to-most prompts (LMP) on their acquisition of two muscle-strengthening machine exercises. Results from a multiple-baseline-across-participants single-subject design show substantive gains in correct and independent performance of steps in the two exercises during the treatment condition. The improved performance in both exercises was maintained 1 week and 2 weeks after the last treatment session and appeared to have extended to a large fitness room. The study suggests that use of the video-enhanced system of LMP as an additional or alternate type of instruction can lead to improved acquisition and maintenance of muscle-strengthening exercises by young adults with moderate ID.

Proficiency in fundamental motor skills (FMS) is important for both the health and the overall growth and development of young children. To identify factors that facilitate the development of FMS, the study provided preliminary data on the effect of videomodeling (VM) on the acquisition of FMS by typically developing young children. Participants were six conveniently selected typically developing preschool-age children from an early care and education center. A multiple-baseline-across-participants single-subject research design was used to evaluate VM effects. Motor skill acquisition was assessed with validated developmental sequences of the standing long jump and the overarm throw. The results demonstrated that the VM intervention improved participants' FMS performance and the improvement was maintained even after the withdrawal of the VM, 2 weeks after the last VM session. Qualitative data collected via a self-report enjoyment scale and field notes with the instructors elicited four factors that might have affected participants' performance: their attention and motivation to perform the task and the skill complexity and reproduction. The data suggest that VM may be an efficient strategy for teaching FMS to preschool-age children.

Health Coaching (HC) is an evidence-based, patient-centered approach to assisting individuals in achieving their health-related goals. Studies have generally shown positive effects of HC on weight loss in obese adults. However, limitations do exist, that if addressed would further clarify HC's viability as a clinical, obesity treatment approach. To examine the effects of HC on weight loss, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), and psychosocial constructs in obese adults. A randomized control trial with 44 [Mean body mass index (BMI) 36.5] middle-aged, White adults. Participants were randomly assigned to HC (n = 22) or control (n = 22) groups. A certified health coach provided bi-weekly, in-person and telehealth HC for 12 weeks. Percent excess weight loss was 15.7% in HC vs. 2.5% in controls (p <.001). The change in MVPA was significantly greater in HC (+50.3 min/wk) vs controls (+7.1 min/wk). Psychosocial constructs also changed more favorably in HC than controls. Health coaching is an effective approach for weight loss in obese adults. The results of this study support the consideration of HC as a treatment option for obese adults looking to lose weight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adults with an intellectual disability have significantly lower levels of fitness compared with the general population. This study examined the effects of a 13-week theoretically guided, community-based, multicomponent resistance training intervention, resistance training for empowerment, on muscular strength and independent functional performance in 24 adults with an intellectual disability, aged 18–44 years. Twelve participants were randomly allocated to an experimental group and 12 to an active control group. An analysis of covariance revealed that the experimental group had significantly greater increases (p <.05) on the chest press and leg press one-repetition maximum tests and the 6-min walk test from the baseline to postintervention compared with the control group. The experimental group correctly and independently performed a significantly greater number of steps of resistance training exercise tasks than the control group. Marginal significance and large effect sizes were found for the prone plank test and the stair climb test. The resistance training for empowerment was effective in promoting muscular strength and independent functional performance among adults with an intellectual disability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Video-based modeling is becoming increasingly popular for teaching fundamental motor skills to children in physical education. Two frequently used video-based instructional strategies that incorporate modeling are video prompting (VP) and video modeling (VM). Both strategies have been used across multiple disciplines and populations to teach a wide range of skills, including motor skills. This article describes the benefits of VM and VP and presents eight basic steps to implementing them into physical education classes to promote the acquisition of fundamental motor skills in children. The eight steps are: (1) identifying the target skill(s), (2) selecting the learning cues, (3) selecting the video equipment, (4) selecting the video model, (5) creating the video, (6) selecting and arranging the setting, (7) monitoring progress, and (8) fading.

Adults with intellectual disability have significantly lower musculoskeletal fitness than their peers without a disability. Appropriate instructional strategies are needed to facilitate their acquisition and maintenance of musculoskeletal fitness. In this multiple-baseline across-participants single-subject study, the authors evaluated the effects of a multicomponent package that included a video-enhanced system of least-to-most prompts on the acquisition of 5 muscle-strengthening exercises in 3 women with mild intellectual disability, age 24–37 yr. Results show substantive gains in correct and independent performance of steps in the 5 exercises during the treatment condition. The improved performance was maintained 2 wk after the last treatment session and in a large YMCA gym. The study suggests that use of the video-enhanced system of least-to-most prompts can lead to improved acquisition and maintenance of muscle-strengthening exercises by adults with mild intellectual disability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated beliefs and physical education goals associated with intentions of students without disabilities to play with a hypothetical peer with a physical disability in general physical education (GPE). The Children's Intentions to Play with Peers with Disabilities in Middle School Physical Education (CBIPPD-MPE), the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Scale-9, and the Social Goal Scale were administered to a convenience sample of 359 participants. Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that social goals and task-involved goals significantly contributed (p less than 0.01) to positive behavioral, normative, and control beliefs. In addition, the three beliefs significantly contributed (p less than 0.01) to participants' intentions. Females had significantly higher intentions, behavioral beliefs, and social goals, whereas males had significantly higher ego-involved goals (p less than 0.05). The findings offer empirical support for consideration of social and achievement goal theories and gender in the CBIPPD-MPE model. (Contains 1 figure and 2 tables.)

The use of therapy-dog teams in programs for children with disabilities is becoming increasingly popular in school and therapeutic settings and has been shown to provide physical, social, and emotional benefits for the children. This article describes the basic steps for implementing therapy dog-assisted activities in physical activity programs for children with autism spectrum disorders, as well as challenges and recommendations.

The study assessed parental perceptions of the benefits of physical activity (PA) and the factors that influence participation of children with autism spectrum disorders in PA after school. Data were collected from 103 parents using an online open-ended questionnaire and focus-group interviews. Data were analyzed using a socioecological model. Parents provided 225 responses that were coded as advantages, 106 as disadvantages, 225 as facilitators, and 250 as barriers of PA. The most frequently reported advantages were physical, followed by psychosocial, and cognitive. Disadvantages were psychosocial and physical. The most frequently reported barriers were intrapersonal, followed by interpersonal, physical, community, and institutional. Facilitators were intrapersonal, followed by physical, interpersonal, community, and institutional. Public policy factors were elicited in the interviews. (Contains 5 tables.)

As the first step of an instrument development, teaching challenges that occur when students with autism spectrum disorders are educated in general physical education were elicited using Goldfried and D'Zurilla's (1969) behavioral-analytic model. Data were collected from a convenience sample of 43 certified physical educators (29 women and 14 men) using a demographic questionnaire and an elicitation questionnaire. Participants listed 225 teaching challenges, 46% related to cooperative, 31% to competitive, and 24% to individualistic learning situations. Teaching challenges were categorized into nine themes: inattentive and hyperactive behaviors, social impairment, emotional regulation difficulties, difficulties understanding and performing tasks, narrow focus and inflexible adherence to routines and structure, isolation by classmates, negative effects on classmates' learning, and need for support. (Contains 3 tables.)

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) was used to elicit salient behavioral, normative, and control beliefs of children without disabilities toward playing with a hypothetical peer with a disability in general physical education. Participants were 350 elementary and middle school students who completed two questionnaires. Questionnaires were assessed for content validity. Participants provided more affective (68%) than instrumental (32%) responses for favorable behavioral beliefs and more instrumental (76%) than affective (24%) responses for unfavorable beliefs. Peer social pressure was prevalent in favorable (69%) and unfavorable (99%) responses. Social pressure significantly varied across five grades, [chi][superscript 2](4, N = 448) = 40.51, p less than 0.01. Participants responded many factors in the class would positively (76%) or negatively (89%) influence the behavior. (Contains 4 tables.)

The purpose of the review is to critically analyze English-written research articles pertaining to inclusion of students with disabilities in physical education published in professional journals both within and outside of the United States from 1995-2005. Each study included in this review had to meet seven a priori criteria. Findings of the 38 selected studies were divided into six focus areas: (a) support, (b) affects on peers without disabilities, (c) attitudes and intentions of children without disabilities, (d) social interactions, (e) ALT-PE of students with disabilities, and (f) training and attitudes of GPE teachers. Recommendations for future practice and research are embedded throughout the article.

Muscular strength is critical for adults with an intellectual disability (ID) to promote their mobility, cardiovascular capacity, and performance of daily living/recreational/vocational activities. This article reports the results of the first systematic review and meta-analysis of peer-reviewed clinical trials that evaluated the effects of resistance training (RT) interventions on muscular strength in adults with ID. The protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020184905). The review focuses on clinical trials that recorded quantitative measures of maximum muscular strength. Eleven electronic databases were searched from their earliest available record up to May 2020. After screening 1996 search records, 11 clinical trials were reviewed. The RT interventions, while heterogeneous, had an overall significant (p ≤ 0.05) effect on muscular strength in adults with ID, ages 25–58 years. The findings were more significant and less heterogeneous for non-combined RT interventions than for interventions that combined RT exercises with aerobic or balance exercises. The TESTEX overall score was 8.3 ± 3.6. RT interventions (particularly when not combined with other exercises) are effective in promoting muscular strength in adults with ID. The limited number of studies and the low study quality scores indicate a potential risk of bias, which limits the interpretation of the findings and warrants further investigation. Muscular strength is critical for adults with an intellectual disability (ID) to promote their mobility, cardiovascular capacity, and performance of daily living/recreational/vocational activities. RT interventions are an effective means of improving muscular strength in adults with ID, especially when not combined with other forms of exercise. Testing and assessment protocols used in RT programs should be individualized for adults with ID to accommodate their characteristics and should be implemented under conditions similar to those experienced during the training regimen. It is important to implement familiarization sessions before carrying out muscular strength testing or initiating an RT program to ensure safety, accuracy, and effectiveness of the program for adults with ID. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined adapted physical educators' caseloads, service delivery modalities, and the amount of direct and indirect instructional time provided to students with disabilities in general physical education. The participants were a national sample of 139 certified adapted physical educators, 100 women and 39 men, representing 31 states. Certified adapted physical educators were defined as physical educators who passed the Adapted Physical Education National Standards Exam. The sample completed a web-based survey and had a return rate of 34%. The participants typically worked 41.2 hr. per week and allocated 52.3% of their time to direct and 13.8% of their time to indirect services. Students on the caseloads received on average 32 min. of instruction per week. For direct services, 27% of the participants reported serving preschool students, 72% elementary school students, 57% middle or junior high school students, and 59% secondary or high school students. For indirect services, 16% of the participants reported serving preschool students, 55% elementary school students, 41% middle and junior high school students, and 38% secondary or high school students. The participants carried a mean caseload of 51 students, with 42 students served directly and nine students served indirectly. The two factors that possibly influenced the participants' caseloads include students' grade level and policies within each state or school district. The findings are compared to the national job analysis (Kelly & Gansneder, 1998). DOI: 10.2466/PMS.109.3.737-746

The primary purpose was to extend Rizzo's research and identify the variables which contribute significantly to physical educators' positive beliefs about teaching children with disabilities. The second purpose was to structure physical educators' beliefs by conditions of disability. Participants were a stratified random sample of 168 physical educators, 79 men and 89 women from eastern USA. Responses to Rizzo's Physical Educators' Attitudes Toward Teaching Individuals with Disabilities-III indicated that teachers' beliefs were generally positive but varied by type of disability. Beliefs were more positive about teaching children with specific learning disabilities and less positive about teaching children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Significant predictors of positive beliefs were perceived competence, positive teaching experience with children with disabilities, and course work in adapted physical education. The study has important implications for programs of preparing students to teach.

Quality physical education can play a critical role in helping students become more active, physically literate, and develop the skills and interests to remain physically active throughout their lives. The healthy, physically active student is more likely to be academically motivated, alert, and successful in school. Unfortunately, findings from multiple studies interviewing students with disabilities suggest that students with disabilities are often less active and feel more socially separated from the class compared to their classmates without disabilities in general physical education. Clearly, more research is needed to identify best practices or strategies for creating a positive learning environment in physical education for all students. This paper examines future research considerations based on what we currently know about the physical education experiences and concerns of students with disabilities as well as concerns voiced by general physical educators. Considerations include: (1) What evidence do we have and what evidence do we need to show students with 3 disabilities are receiving appropriate physical education whether included or in a separate setting? (2) What evidence do we have and what evidence do we need to show that physical educators are properly trained and qualified to provide physical education to students with disabilities? (3) What evidence do we have and what evidence do we need to show that particular curricular and teaching models are effective when including students with disabilities in general physical education and when working in small groups or one-on-one? (4) What evidence do we have and what evidence do we need to show that students with disabilities are socially part of the class and not simply physically present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study investigated beliefs and physical education goals associated with intentions of students without disabilities to play with a hypothetical peer with a physical disability in general physical education (GPE). The Children's Intentions to Play with Peers with Disabilities in Middle School Physical Education (CBIPPD-MPE), the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Scale-9, and the Social Goal Scale were administered to a convenience sample of 359 participants. Structural equation modeling analyses indicated that social goals and task-involved goals significantly contributed (p < .01) to positive behavioral, normative, and control beliefs. In addition, the three beliefs significantly contributed (p < .01) to participants' intentions. Females had significantly higher intentions, behavioral beliefs, and social goals, whereas males had significantly higher ego-involved goals (p < .05). The findings offer empirical support for consideration of social and achievement goal theories and gender in the CBIPPD-MPE model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study assessed parental perceptions of the benefits of physical activity (PA) and the factors that influence participation of children with autism spectrum disorders in PA after school. Data were collected from 103 parents using an online open-ended questionnaire and focus-group interviews. Data were analyzed using a socioecological model. Parents provided 225 responses that were coded as advantages, 106 as disadvantages, 225 as facilitators, and 250 as barriers of PA. The most frequently reported advantages were physical, followed by psychosocial, and cognitive. Disadvantages were psychosocial and physical. The most frequently reported barriers were intrapersonal, followed by interpersonal, physical, community, and institutional. Facilitators were intrapersonal, followed by physical, interpersonal, community, and institutional. Public policy factors were elicited in the interviews. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the first step of an instrument development, teaching challenges that occur when students with autism spectrum disorders are educated in general physical education were elicited using Goldfried and D'Zurilla's (1969) behavioral-analytic model. Data were collected from a convenience sample of 43 certified physical educators (29 women and 14 men) using a demographic questionnaire and an elicitation questionnaire. Participants listed 225 teaching challenges, 46% related to cooperative, 31 % to competitive, and 24% to individualistic learning situations. Teaching challenges were categorized into nine themes: inattentive and hyperactive behaviors, social impairment, emotional regulation difficulties, difficulties understanding and performing tasks, narrow focus and inflexible adherence to routines and structure, isolation by classmates, negative effects on classmates' learning, and need for support. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]