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Tgt is the enzyme modifying the guanine (G) in tRNAs with GUN anti-codon to queuosine (Q). tgt is required for optimal growth of Vibrio cholerae in the presence of sub-lethal aminoglycoside concentrations. We further explored here the role of the Q in the efficiency of codon decoding upon tobramycin exposure. We characterized its impact on the overall bacterial proteome, and elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of Q modification in antibiotic translational stress response. Using molecular reporters, we showed that Q impacts the efficiency of decoding at tyrosine TAT and TAC codons. Proteomics analyses revealed that the anti-SoxR factor RsxA is better translated in the absence of tgt. RsxA displays a codon bias towards tyrosine TAT and its overabundance leads to decreased expression of genes belonging to SoxR oxidative stress regulon. We also identified conditions that regulate tgt expression. We propose that regulation of Q modification in response to environmental cues leads to translational reprogramming of genes bearing a biased tyrosine codon usage. In silico analysis further identified candidate genes possibly subject to such translational regulation, among which DNA repair factors. Such transcripts, fitting the definition of modification tunable transcripts, are plausibly central in the bacterial response to antibiotics.

Pervasive translation is a widespread phenomenon that plays an important role in de novo gene birth; however, its underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Based on multiple Ribosome Profiling (Ribo-Seq) datasets, we investigated the RiboSeq landscape of coding and noncoding regions of yeast. Therefore, we developed a representation framework which allows the visual representation and rational classification of the entire diversity of Ribo-Seq signals that could be observed in yeast. We show that if coding regions are restricted to specific areas of the Ribo-Seq landscape, noncoding regions are associated with a wide diversity of translation signals and, conversely, populate the entire yeast Ribo-Seq landscape. Specifically, we reveal that noncoding regions are associated with canonical translation signals, but also with non-canonical ones absent from coding regions, and which appear to be a hallmark of pervasive translation. Notably, we report thousands of translated noncoding ORFs among which, 251 led to detectable products with Mass Spectrometry while being characterized by a wide range of translation specificities. Overall, we show that pervasive translation is not random with noncoding ORF translation signals being consistent across Ribo-Seq experiments. Finally, we show that the translation signal of noncoding ORFs is not explained by features related to the emergence of function, but rather determined by the translation start codon and the codon distribution in their two alternative frames. Overall, our results enable us to propose a topology of the pervasive Ribo-Seq landscape of a species, and open the way to future comparative analyses of this translation landscape under different conditions.

Nonsense mutations account for 12 % of the cases of Cystic fibrosis (CF). The gene inactivation resulting from premature termination codon (PTC) can be counteracted by the use of drugs stimulating PTC readthrough, thereby restoring production of the full-length protein. We recently identified a new readthrough inducer named TLN468, acting more efficiently than gentamicin.Here, we measured readthrough induced by these two drugs on different cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) PTCs. Then we determined the amino acids inserted at theCFTRPTCs S1196X, G542X, W846X and E1418X during TLN468-mediated readthrough. Interestingly, TLN468 significantly promotes the incorporation of one specific amino acid at each stop codon, while gentamicin does not change the proportion of amino acids incorporated in basal conditions. Also, the function of the predicted recoded CFTR channels corresponding to these 4 PTCs was measured with or without potentiator. We found that, for some PTC, suppression induced by TLN468 treatment allows the expression of variants CFTR proteins with proper maturation and significant activity that can be potentiated by the presence of CFTR modulators.These results suggest that TLN468 PTC suppression in combination with CFTR modulators may be beneficial for the treatment of CF patients with PTCs.

Premature termination codons (PTCs) account for 10 to 20% of genetic diseases in humans. The gene inactivation resulting from PTCs can be counteracted by the use of drugs stimulating PTC readthrough, thereby restoring production of the full-length protein. However, a greater chemical variety of readthrough inducers is required to broaden the medical applications of this therapeutic strategy. In this study, we developed a reporter cell line and performed high-throughput screening (HTS) to identify potential readthrough inducers. After three successive assays, we isolated 2-guanidino-quinazoline (TLN468). We assessed the clinical potential of this drug as a potent readthrough inducer on the 40 PTCs most frequently responsible for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). We found that TLN468 was more efficient than gentamicin, and acted on a broader range of sequences, without inducing the readthrough of normal stop codons (TC).

SummaryDespite predicted to lack coding potential, cytoplasmic long non-coding (lnc)RNAs can associate with ribosomes, resulting in some cases into the production of functional peptides. However, the biological and mechanistic relevance of this pervasive lncRNAs translation remains poorly studied. In yeast, cytoplasmic Xrn1-sensitive lncRNAs (XUTs) are targeted by the Nonsense-Mediated mRNA Decay (NMD), suggesting a translation-dependent degradation process. Here, we report that XUTs are translated, which impacts their abundance. We show that XUTs globally accumulate upon translation elongation inhibition, but not when initial ribosome loading is impaired. Translation also affects XUTs independently of NMD, by interfering with their decapping. Ribo-Seq confirmed ribosomes binding to XUTs and identified actively translated small ORFs in their 5’-proximal region. Mechanistic analyses revealed that their NMD-sensitivity depends on the 3’-untranslated region length. Finally, we detected the peptide derived from the translation of an NMD-sensitive XUT reporter in NMD-competent cells. Our work highlights the role of translation in the metabolism of XUTs, which could contribute to expose genetic novelty to the natural selection, while NMD restricts their expression.

Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) is a complex retrovirus which relies on alternative splicing, translational and post-translational mechanisms to produce more than 15 functional proteins from its single ∼10kb transcriptional unit. Here, we have applied ribosome profiling and nascent protein labeling at different time points during infection of CD4+ T lymphocytes to characterize the translational landscape of cellular and viral transcripts during the course of infection. Our results indicate a strong impact of viral infection on host cellular transcript levels but a modest impact on global translation rates. Analysis of ribosome profiling reads from viral transcripts reveals extensive and productive non-AUG translation of small peptides from multiple upstream open reading-frames (uORFs) located in the 5’ long terminal repeat. Remarkably, these uORFs derived peptides elicit specific T cell responses in HIV-infected individuals. uORFs are conserved among other retroviruses and, together with the TAR sequence, condition the dependency on DDX3 for efficient translation of the main viral open-reading frames.

Premature termination codons (PTCs) account for 10% to 20% of genetic diseases in humans. The gene inactivation resulting from PTC can be counteracted by the use of drugs stimulating PTC readthrough, thereby restoring production of the full-length protein. However, a greater chemical variety of readthrough inducers is required to broaden the medical applications of this therapeutic strategy. In this study, we developed a new reporter cell line and performed high-throughput screening (HTS) to identify potential new readthrough inducers. After three successive assays, we isolated 2-guanidino-quinazoline (TLN468). We assessed the clinical potential of this drug as a potent readthrough inducer on the 40 PTCs most frequently responsible for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. We found that TLN468 was more efficient than gentamicin, and acted on a broader range of sequences, without inducing the readthrough of natural stop codons.

Ribosomes are evolutionary conserved ribonucleoprotein complexes that function as two separate subunits in all kingdoms. During translation initiation, the two subunits assemble to form the mature ribosome, which is responsible for translating the messenger RNA. When the ribosome reaches a stop codon, release factors promote translation termination and peptide release, and recycling factors then dissociate the two subunits, ready for use in a new round of translation. A tethered ribosome, called Ribo-T, in which the two subunits are covalently linked to form a single entity, was recently described in Escherichia coli. A hybrid ribosomal RNA (rRNA) consisting of both the small and large subunit rRNA sequences was engineered. The ribosome with inseparable subunits generated in this way was shown to be functional and to sustain cell growth. Here, we investigated the translational properties of Ribo-T. We analyzed its behavior during amino acid misincorporation, −1 or +1 frameshifting, stop codon readthrough, and internal translation initiation. Our data indicate that covalent attachment of the two subunits modifies the properties of the ribosome, altering its ability to initiate and terminate translation correctly.

Regulation of translation via stop codon readthrough (SC-RT) expands not only tissue-specific but also viral proteomes in humans and, therefore, represents an important subject of study. Understanding this mechanism and all involved players is critical also from a point of view of prospective medical therapies of hereditary diseases caused by a premature termination codon. tRNAs were considered for a long time to be just passive players delivering amino acid residues according to the genetic code to ribosomes without any active regulatory roles. In contrast, our recent yeast work identified several endogenous tRNAs implicated in the regulation of SC-RT. Swiftly emerging studies of human tRNA-ome also advocate that tRNAs have unprecedented regulatory potential. Here, we developed a universal U6 promotor-based system expressing various human endogenous tRNA iso-decoders to study consequences of their increased dosage on SC-RT employing various reporter systems in vivo. This system combined with siRNA-mediated downregulations of selected aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases demonstrated that changing levels of human tryptophan and tyrosine tRNAs do modulate efficiency of SC-RT. Overall, our results suggest that tissue-to-tissue specific levels of selected near-cognate tRNAs may have a vital potential to fine-tune the final landscape of the human proteome, as well as that of its viral pathogens.

The noncoding genome plays an important role in de novo gene birth and in the emergence of genetic novelty. Nevertheless, how noncoding sequences’ properties could promote the birth of novel genes and shape the evolution and the structural diversity of proteins remains unclear. Therefore, by combining different bioinformatic approaches, we characterized the fold potential diversity of the amino acid sequences encoded by all intergenic ORFs (Open Reading Frames) of S. cerevisiae with the aim of (i) exploring whether the large structural diversity observed in proteomes is already present in noncoding sequences, and (ii) estimating the potential of the noncoding genome to produce novel protein bricks that can either give rise to novel genes or be integrated into pre-existing proteins, thus participating in protein structure diversity and evolution. We showed that amino acid sequences encoded by most yeast intergenic ORFs contain the elementary building blocks of protein structures. Moreover, they encompass the large structural diversity of canonical proteins with strikingly the majority predicted as foldable. Then, we investigated the early stages of de novo gene birth by identifying intergenic ORFs with a strong translation signal in ribosome profiling experiments and by reconstructing the ancestral sequences of 70 yeast de novo genes. This enabled us to highlight sequence and structural factors determining de novo gene emergence. Finally, we showed a strong correlation between the fold potential of de novo proteins and the one of their ancestral amino acid sequences, reflecting the relationship between the noncoding genome and the protein structure universe.

International audience; Ribosomal RNA is a major component of the ribosome. This RNA plays a crucial role in ribosome functioning by ensuring the formation of the peptide bond between amino acids and the accurate decoding of the genetic code. The rRNA carries many chemical modifications that participate in its maturation, the formation of the ribosome and its functioning. In this review, we present the different modifications and how they are deposited on the rRNA. We also describe the most recent results showing that the modified positions are not 100% modified, which creates a heterogeneous population of ribosomes. This gave rise to the concept of specialized ribosomes that we discuss. The knowledge accumulated in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is very helpful to better understand the role of rRNA modifications in humans, especially in ribosomopathies.

iGEM (pour international genetically engineered machine) est un concours international autour de la biologie synthétique réunissant des étudiants de toutes disciplines (mathématiques, physique, biologie, arts, etc.). « L’objectif est de construire un système biologique fonctionnel complexe, en assemblant des composants individuels moléculaires simples et standardisés (fragments d’ADN), appelés « briques biologiques » (biobriques), sorte de « legos » moléculaires, entreposés au MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (le registry of standard biological parts contient environ 20 000 biobriques). C’est une démarche proche de celle de l’ingénieur qui assemble des circuits électroniques ». En 2004, lors de sa création par le MIT (→), la compétition iGEM regroupait une quarantaine de projets ; 14 ans plus tard, elle accueille 350 équipes (6 000 étudiants, avec leurs instructeurs) issues des universités du monde entier. Elle culmine en un Giant Jamboree de quatre jours à Boston en novembre, au cours duquel les équipes présentent leur projet. Le « wiki » de la compétition (www.igem.org) présente l’ensemble des projets ainsi que le palmarès. Cette année, ont été décernées 114 médailles d’or, 68 d’argent et 107 de bronze. Neuf équipes françaises étaient engagées. (→) Voir l’article de J. Peccoud et L. Coulombel, dont certains passages sont repris dans ce « chapo », m/s n° 5, mai 2007, page 551

BACKGROUND AND AIMS Progressive familial intrahepatic cholestasis type 2 (PFIC2) is a severe hepatocellular cholestasis due to biallelic mutations in ABCB11 encoding the canalicular bile salt export pump (BSEP). Nonsense mutations are responsible for the most severe phenotypes. The aim was to assess the ability of drugs to induce readthrough of six nonsense mutations (p.Y354X, p.R415X, p.R470X, p.R1057X, p.R1090X, and p.E1302X) identified in patients with PFIC2. APPROACH AND RESULTS The ability of G418, gentamicin, and PTC124 to induce readthrough was studied using a dual gene reporter system in NIH3T3 cells. The ability of gentamicin to induce readthrough and to lead to the expression of a full-length protein was studied in human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293), HepG2, and Can 10 cells using immunodetection assays. The function of the gentamicin-induced full-length protein was studied by measuring the [3 H]-taurocholate transcellular transport in stable Madin-Darby canine kidney clones co-expressing Na+-taurocholate co-transporting polypeptide (Ntcp). Combinations of gentamicin and chaperone drugs (ursodeoxycholic acid, 4-phenylbutyrate [4-PB]) were investigated. In NIH3T3, aminoglycosides significantly increased the readthrough level of all mutations studied, while PTC124 only slightly increased the readthrough of p.E1302X. Gentamicin induced a readthrough of p.R415X, p.R470X, p.R1057X, and p.R1090X in HEK293 cells. The resulting full-length proteins localized within the cytoplasm, except for BsepR1090X , which was also detected at the plasma membrane of human embryonic kidney HEK293 and at the canalicular membrane of Can 10 and HepG2 cells. Additional treatment with 4-PB and ursodeoxycholic acid significantly increased the canalicular proportion of full-length BsepR1090X protein in Can 10 cells. In Madin-Darby canine kidney clones, gentamicin induced a 40% increase of the BsepR1090X [3 H]-taurocholate transport, which was further increased with additional 4-PB treatment. CONCLUSION This study constitutes a proof of concept for readthrough therapy in selected patients with PFIC2 with nonsense mutations.

International audience; In addition to its role in translation termination, eRF3A has been implicated in the nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) pathway through its interaction with UPF1. NMD is a RNA quality control mechanism, which detects and degrades aberrant mRNAs as well as some normal transcripts including those that harbour upstream open reading frames in their 5' leader sequence. In this study, we used RNA-sequencing and ribosome profiling to perform a genome wide analysis of the effect of either eRF3A or UPF1 depletion in human cells. Our bioinformatics analyses allow to delineate the features of the transcripts controlled by eRF3A and UPF1 and to compare the effect of each of these factors on gene expression. We find that eRF3A and UPF1 have very different impacts on the human transcriptome, less than 250 transcripts being targeted by both factors. We show that eRF3A depletion globally derepresses the expression of mRNAs containing translated uORFs while UPF1 knockdown derepresses only the mRNAs harbouring uORFs with an AUG codon in an optimal context for translation initiation. Finally, we also find that eRF3A and UPF1 have opposite effects on ribosome protein gene expression. Together, our results provide important elements for understanding the impact of translation termination and NMD on the human transcriptome and reveal novel determinants of ribosome biogenesis regulation.

Little is known about the rate of emergence of de novo genes, what their initial properties are, and how they spread in populations. We examined wild yeast populations (Saccharomyces paradoxus) to characterize the diversity and turnover of intergenic ORFs over short evolutionary timescales. We find that hundreds of intergenic ORFs show translation signatures similar to canonical genes, and we experimentally confirmed the translation of many of these ORFs in laboratory conditions using a reporter assay. Compared with canonical genes, intergenic ORFs have lower translation efficiency, which could imply a lack of optimization for translation or a mechanism to reduce their production cost. Translated intergenic ORFs also tend to have sequence properties that are generally close to those of random intergenic sequences. However, some of the very recent translated intergenic ORFs, which appeared

Little is known about the rate of emergence of genes de novo, how they spread in populations and what their initial properties are. We examined wild Saccharomyces paradoxus populations to characterize the diversity and turnover of intergenic ORFs over short evolutionary time-scales. We identified ~34,000 intergenic ORFs per individual genome for a total of ~64,000 orthogroups, which resulted from an estimated turnover rate relatively smaller than the rate of gene duplication in yeast. Hundreds of intergenic ORFs show translation signatures, similar to canonical genes, but lower translation efficiency, which could reduce their potential production cost or simply reflect a lack of optimization. Translated intergenic ORFs tend to display low expression levels with sequence properties that are on average closer to expectations based on intergenic sequences. However, some predicted de novo polypeptides with gene-like properties emerged from ancient as well as recent birth events, illustrating that the raw material for functional innovations may appear even over short evolutionary time-scales. Our results suggest that variation in the mutation rate along the genome impacts the turnover of random polypeptides, which may in turn influence their early evolutionary trajectory. Whereas low mutation rate regions allow more time for random intergenic ORFs to evolve and become functional before being lost, mutation hotspots allow for the rapid exploration of the molecular landscape, thereby increasing the probability to acquire a polypeptide with immediate gene-like properties and thus functional potential.

Premature termination codons (PTCs) are generally associated with severe forms of genetic diseases. Readthrough of in-frame PTCs using small molecules is a promising therapeutic approach. Nonetheless, the outcome of preclinical studies has been low and variable. Treatment efficacy depends on: 1) the level of drug-induced readthrough, 2) the amount of target transcripts, and 3) the activity of the recoded protein. The aim of the present study was to identify, in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) model, recoded channels from readthrough therapy that may be enhanced using CFTR modulators. First, drug-induced readthrough of 15 PTCs was measured using a dual reporter system under basal conditions and in response to gentamicin and negamycin. Secondly, exon skipping associated with these PTCs was evaluated with a minigene system. Finally, incorporated amino acids were identified by mass spectrometry and the function of the predicted recoded CFTR channels corresponding to these 15 PTCs was measured. Nonfunctional channels were subjected to CFTR-directed ivacaftor-lumacaftor treatments. The results demonstrated that CFTR modulators increased activity of recoded channels, which could also be confirmed in cells derived from a patient. In conclusion, this work will provide a framework to adapt treatments to the patient's genotype by identifying the most efficient molecule for each PTC and the recoded channels needing co-therapies to rescue channel function., This study identified readthrough-recoded CFTR channels, the activity of which could be enhanced using CFTR modulators http://ow.ly/f7Gd30hBCeG

National audience

Ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) are main effectors of messenger RNA (mRNA) decoding, peptide-bond formation, and ribosome dynamics during translation. Ribose 2′-O-methylation (2′-O-Me) is the most abundant rRNA chemical modification, and displays a complex pattern in rRNA. 2′-O-Me was shown to be essential for accurate and efficient protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells. However, whether rRNA 2′-O-Me is an adjustable feature of the human ribosome and a means of regulating ribosome function remains to be determined. Here we challenged rRNA 2′-O-Me globally by inhibiting the rRNA methyl-transferase fibrillarin in human cells. Using RiboMethSeq, a nonbiased quantitative mapping of 2′-O-Me, we identified a repertoire of 2′-O-Me sites subjected to variation and demonstrate that functional domains of ribosomes are targets of 2′-O-Me plasticity. Using the cricket paralysis virus internal ribosome entry site element, coupled to in vitro translation, we show that the intrinsic capability of ribosomes to translate mRNAs is modulated through a 2′-O-Me pattern and not by nonribosomal actors of the translational machinery. Our data establish rRNA 2′-O-Me plasticity as a mechanism providing functional specificity to human ribosomes.

Stop codon readthrough may be promoted by the nucleotide environment or drugs. In such cases, ribosomes incorporate a natural suppressor tRNA at the stop codon, leading to the continuation of translation in the same reading frame until the next stop codon and resulting in the expression of a protein with a new potential function. However, the identity of the natural suppressor tRNAs involved in stop codon readthrough remains unclear, precluding identification of the amino acids incorporated at the stop position. We established an in vivo reporter system for identifying the amino acids incorporated at the stop codon, by mass spectrometry in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We found that glutamine, tyrosine and lysine were inserted at UAA and UAG codons, whereas tryptophan, cysteine and arginine were inserted at UGA codon. The 5′ nucleotide context of the stop codon had no impact on the identity or proportion of amino acids incorporated by readthrough. We also found that two different glutamine tRNAGln were used to insert glutamine at UAA and UAG codons. This work constitutes the first systematic analysis of the amino acids incorporated at stop codons, providing important new insights into the decoding rules used by the ribosome to read the genetic code.

Nonsense mutations, generating premature termination codons (PTCs), account for 10% to 30% of the mutations in tumor suppressor genes. Nonsense translational suppression, induced by small molecules including gentamicin and G418, has been suggested as a potential therapy to counteract the deleterious effects of nonsense mutations in several genetic diseases and cancers. We describe here that NB124, a synthetic aminoglycoside derivative recently developed especially for PTC suppression, strongly induces apoptosis in human tumor cells by promoting high level of PTC readthrough. Using a reporter system, we showed that NB124 suppressed several of the PTCs encountered in tumor suppressor genes, such as the p53 and APC genes. We also showed that NB124 counteracted p53 mRNA degradation by nonsense-mediated decay (NMD). Both PTC suppression and mRNA stabilization contributed to the production of a full-length p53 protein capable of activating p53-dependent genes, thereby specifically promoting high levels of apoptosis. This new-generation aminoglycoside thus outperforms the only clinically available readthrough inducer (gentamicin). These results have important implications for the development of personalised treatments of PTC-dependent diseases and for the development of new drugs modifying translation fidelity.

International audience; Protein synthesis is a complex multi-step process involving many factors that need to interact in a coordinated manner to properly translate the messenger RNA. As translating ribosomes cannot be synchronized over many elongation cycles, single molecule studies have been introduced to bring a deeper understanding of prokaryotic translation dynamics. Extending this approach to eukaryotic translation is very appealing, but initiation and specific labelling of the ribosomes are much more complicated. Here we use a non-canonical translation initiation based on internal ribosome entry sites (IRES) and we monitor the passage of individual, unmodified mammalian ribosomes at specific fluorescent milestones along mRNA. We explore initiation by two types of IRES, the intergenic IRES of Cricket Paralysis virus (CrPV) and the hepatitis C (HCV) IRES, and show that they both strongly limit the rate of the first elongation steps compared to the following ones suggesting that those first elongation cycles do not correspond to a canonical elongation. This new system opens the possibility to study both IRES-mediated initiation and elongation kinetics of eukaryotic translation and will undoubtedly be a valuable tool to investigate the role of translation machinery modifications in human diseases.

International audience

Errors occur randomly and at low frequency during the translation of mRNA. However, such errors may also be programmed by the sequence and structure of the mRNA. These programmed events are called ‘recoding’ and are found mostly in viruses, in which they are usually essential for viral replication. Translational errors at a stop codon may also be induced by drugs, raising the possibility of developing new treatment protocols for genetic diseases on the basis of nonsense mutations. Many studies have been carried out, but the molecular mechanisms governing these events remain largely unknown. Studies on the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae have contributed to characterization of the HIV-1 frameshifting site and have demonstrated that frameshifting is conserved from yeast to humans. Yeast has also proved a particularly useful model organism for deciphering the mechanisms of translation termination in eukaryotes and identifying the factors required to obtain a high level of natural suppression. These findings open up new possibilities for large-scale screening in yeast to identify new drugs for blocking HIV replication by inhibiting frameshifting or restoring production of the full-length protein from a gene inactivated by a premature termination codon. We explore these two aspects of the contribution of yeast studies to human medicine in this review.

International audience; Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) link the genetic code in the form of messenger RNA (mRNA) to protein sequence. Translocation of tRNAs through the ribosome from aminoacyl (A) site to peptidyl (P) site and from P site to exit site is catalyzed in eukaryotes by the translocase elongation factor 2 (EF-2) and in prokaryotes by its homolog EF-G. During tRNA movement one or more "hybrid" states (A/P) is occupied, but molecular details of them and of the translocation process are limited. Here we show by cryo-electron microscopy that a population of mammalian ribosomes stalled at an mRNA pseudoknot structure contains structurally distorted tRNAs in two different A/P hybrid states. In one (A/P'), the tRNA is in contact with the translocase EF-2, which induces it. In the other (A/P''), the translocase is absent. The existence of these alternative A/P intermediate states has relevance to our understanding of the mechanics and kinetics of translocation.

International audience; Translation termination in eukaryotes is completed by two interacting factors eRF1 and eRF3. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, these proteins are encoded by the genes SUP45 and SUP35, respectively. The eRF1 protein interacts directly with the stop codon at the ribosomal A-site, whereas eRF3-a GTPase protein-probably acts as a proofreading factor, coupling stop codon recognition to polypeptide chain release. We performed random PCR mutagenesis of SUP45 and screened the library for mutations resulting in increased eRF1 activity. These mutations led to the identification of two new pockets in domain 1 (P1 and P2) involved in the regulation of eRF1 activity. Furthermore, we identified novel mutations located in domains 2 and 3, which confer stop codon specificity to eRF1. Our findings are consistent with the model of a closed-active conformation of eRF1 and shed light on two new functional regions of the protein.

International audience; The translation of genetic information into proteins is a fundamental process of life. Stepwise addition of amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain requires the coordinated movement of mRNA and tRNAs through the ribosome, a process known as translocation. Here, we review current understanding of the kinetics and mechanics of translocation, with particular emphasis on the structure of a functional mammalian ribosome stalled during translocation by an mRNA pseudoknot. In the context of a pseudoknot-stalled complex, the translocase EF-2 is seen to compress a hybrid-state tRNA into a strained conformation. We propose that this strain energy helps overcome the kinetic barrier to translocation and drives tRNA into the P-site, with EF-2 biasing this relaxation in one direction. The tRNA can thus be considered a molecular spring and EF-2 a Brownian ratchet in a "spring-and-ratchet" system within the translocation process.

The universal tRNA modification t6A is found at position 37 of nearly all tRNAs decoding ANN codons. The absence of t6A37 leads to severe growth defects in baker’s yeast, phenotypes similar to those caused by defects in mcm5s2U34 synthesis. Mutants in mcm5s2U34 can be suppressed by overexpression of tRNALysUUU, but we show t6A phenotypes could not be suppressed by expressing any individual ANN decoding tRNA, and t6A and mcm5s2U are not determinants for each other’s formation. Our results suggest that t6A deficiency, like mcm5s2U deficiency, leads to protein folding defects, and show that the absence of t6A led to stress sensitivities (heat, ethanol, salt) and sensitivity to TOR pathway inhibitors. Additionally, L-homoserine suppressed the slow growth phenotype seen in t6A-deficient strains, and proteins aggregates and Advanced Glycation End-products (AGEs) were increased in the mutants. The global consequences on translation caused by t6A absence were examined by ribosome profiling. Interestingly, the absence of t6A did not lead to global translation defects, but did increase translation initiation at upstream non-AUG codons and increased frame-shifting in specific genes. Analysis of codon occupancy rates suggests that one of the major roles of t6A is to homogenize the process of elongation by slowing the elongation rate at codons decoded by high abundance tRNAs and I34:C3 pairs while increasing the elongation rate of rare tRNAs and G34:U3 pairs. This work reveals that the consequences of t6A absence are complex and multilayered and has set the stage to elucidate the molecular basis of the observed phenotypes.

International audience; Ribosome profiling is an emerging approach using deep sequencing of the mRNA part protected by the ribosome to study protein synthesis at the genome scale. This approach provides new insights into gene regulation at the translational level. In this review we describe the protocol to prepare polysomes and extract ribosome protected fragments before to deep sequence them.

In eukaryotes, release factors 1 and 3 (eRF1 and eRF3) are recruited to promote translation termination when a stop codon on the mRNA enters at the ribosomal A-site. However, their overexpression increases termination efficiency only moderately, suggesting that other factors might be involved in the termination process. To determine such unknown components, we performed a genetic screen in Saccharomyces cerevisiae that identified genes increasing termination efficiency when overexpressed. For this purpose, we constructed a dedicated reporter strain in which a leaky stop codon is inserted into the chromosomal copy of the ade2 gene. Twenty-five antisuppressor candidates were identified and characterized for their impact on readthrough. Among them, SSB1 and snR18, two factors close to the exit tunnel of the ribosome, directed the strongest antisuppression effects when overexpressed, showing that they may be involved in fine-tuning of the translation termination level.

Ribosome profiling is an emerging approach using deep sequencing of the mRNA part protected by the ribosome to study protein synthesis at the genome scale. This approach provides new insights into gene regulation at the translational level. In this review we describe the protocol to prepare polysomes and extract ribosome protected fragments before to deep sequence them.

International audience; In eukaryotes, translation termination is performed by eRF1, which recognizes stop codons via its N-terminal domain. Many previous studies based on point mutagenesis, cross-linking experiments or eRF1 chimeras have investigated the mechanism by which the stop signal is decoded by eRF1. Conserved motifs, such as GTS and YxCxxxF, were found to be important for termination efficiency, but the recognition mechanism remains unclear. We characterized a region of the eRF1 N-terminal domain, the P1 pocket, that we had previously shown to be involved in termination efficiency. We performed alanine scanning mutagenesis of this region, and we quantified in vivo readthrough efficiency for each alanine mutant. We identified two residues, arginine 65 and lysine 109, as critical for recognition of the three stop codons. We also demonstrated a role for the serine 33 and serine 70 residues in UGA decoding in vivo. NMR analysis of the alanine mutants revealed that the correct conformation of this region was controlled by the YxCxxxF motif. By combining our genetic data with a structural analysis of eRF1 mutants, we were able to formulate a new model in which the stop codon interacts with eRF1 through the P1 pocket.

Reprogrammed genetic decoding signals in mRNAs productively overwrite the normal decoding rules of translation. These "recoding" signals are associated with sites of programmed ribosomal frameshifting, hopping, termination codon suppression, and the incorporation of the unusual amino acids selenocysteine and pyrrolysine. This review summarizes current knowledge of the structure and function of recoding signals in cellular genes, the biological importance of recoding in gene regulation, and ways to identify new recoded genes.

In eukaryotes, translation termination is dependent on the availability of both release factors, eRF1 and eRF3; however, the precise mechanisms involved remain poorly understood. In particular, the fact that the phenotype of release factor mutants is pleiotropic could imply that other factors and interactions are involved in translation termination. To identify unknown elements involved in this process, we performed a genetic screen using a reporter strain in which a leaky stop codon is inserted in the lacZ reporter gene, attempting to isolate factors modifying termination efficiency when overexpressed. Twelve suppressors and 11 antisuppressors, increasing or decreasing termination readthrough, respectively, were identified and analyzed for three secondary phenotypes often associated with translation mutations: thermosensitivity, G418 sensitivity, and sensitivity to osmotic pressure. Interestingly, among these candidates, we identified two genes, SSO1 and STU2, involved in protein transport and spindle pole body formation, respectively, suggesting puzzling connections with the translation termination process.