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This scoping review presents an overview of physical fitness parameters in rhythmic gymnastics as well as the association of fitness with gymnasts’ performance, competitive level, and age. PubMed, Scopus, and Sport Discus databases were searched. Of the 586 records retrieved, 41 studies met the inclusion criteria (n = 1915 participants). The included studies examined flexibility, aerobic capacity, muscle power, muscle endurance, muscle strength, sprint speed, agility, balance, and coordination. Performance was associated with flexibility, aerobic capacity, lower-limb muscle power, agility, muscular endurance, balance, and coordination from a young age. Flexibility, aerobic capacity, and muscle power were, in general, higher in high-level gymnasts than in low-level gymnasts or controls. Older rhythmic gymnasts demonstrated higher scores than the younger ones in flexibility, aerobic capacity, balance, and sport-specific coordination but not in muscle endurance, while some studies reported a decline in muscle power with age. Supplementary physical fitness training improved all physical abilities irrespective of the gymnasts’ level. Rhythmic gymnastics training alone improved muscle power, agility, speed, muscular endurance, and balance to a lesser extent than targeted fitness training. Muscular strength, speed, and agility are largely under-researched in rhythmic gymnastics. Emphasis should be given to targeted strength and power training due to the high mechanical loads placed on skeletally immature athletes.

Abstract Background Long-term stretching of human skeletal muscles increases joint range of motion through altered stretch perception and decreased resistance to stretch. There is also some evidence that stretching induces changes in muscle morphology. However, research is limited and inconclusive. Objective To examine the effect of static stretching training on muscle architecture (i.e., fascicle length and fascicle angle, muscle thickness and cross-sectional area) in healthy participants. Design Systematic review and meta-analysis. Methods PubMed Central, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus were searched. Randomized controlled trials and controlled trials without randomization were included. No restrictions on language or date of publication were applied. Risk of bias was assessed using Cochrane RoB2 and ROBINS-I tools. Subgroup analyses and random-effects meta-regressions were also performed using total stretching volume and intensity as covariates. Quality of evidence was determined by GRADE analysis. Results From the 2946 records retrieved, 19 studies were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis (n = 467 participants). Risk of bias was low in 83.9% of all criteria. Confidence in cumulative evidence was high. Stretching training induces trivial increases in fascicle length at rest (SMD = 0.17; 95% CI 0.01–0.33; p = 0.042) and small increases in fascicle length during stretching (SMD = 0.39; 95% CI 0.05 to 0.74; p = 0.026). No increases were observed in fascicle angle or muscle thickness (p = 0.30 and p = 0.18, respectively). Subgroup analyses showed that fascicle length increased when high stretching volumes were used (p

On behalf of the Strength and Conditioning Society (SCS) and the Hellenic Society of Biochemistry and Exercise Physiology (EEVFA), we are pleased to present the abstracts of the SCS 6th Annual Meeting and EEVFA—11th International Congress of Biochemistry and Physiology of Exercise. The event was held at the Hellenic Olympic Committee headquarters in Athens, Greece, on 19–22 October 2023, and comprised several invited sessions from international and national speakers on a variety of topics related to biochemistry and exercise physiology, strength and conditioning practices and their application to health, injury prevention and sports performance. These included strength training in high-performance sports, sport science and training–competition load management in elite environments, biochemistry and exercise physiology and prescription, nutrition and biomechanics, among others. The conference also included different practical workshops conducted by renowned academics and practitioners on eccentric training, change of direction ability and strength and power training in professional team-sports, and ergospirometry and exercise prescription in specific populations. Finally, the event disseminated up-to-date strength and conditioning research by providing practitioners and researchers with the opportunity to present their most recent findings. In this regard, all abstracts of the communications presented at the SCS 6th Annual Meeting—EEVFA—11th International Congress of Biochemistry and Physiology of Exercise can be found in this Conference Report.

This study examined the acute and long-term effects of two static stretching protocols of equal duration, performed either as a single stretch or multiple shorter duration repetitions on hip hyperextension range of motion (ROM) and single leg countermovement jump height (CMJ). Thirty female gymnasts were randomly assigned to stretching (SG) or control groups (CG). The SG performed two different protocols of static stretching, three times per week for 9 weeks. One leg performed repeated stretching (3 × 30 s with 30 s rest) while the other leg performed a single stretch (90 s). The CG continued regular training. ROM and CMJ were measured pre- and 2 min post-stretching on weeks 0, 3, 6, 9, and 3 weeks into detraining. CMJ height increased over time irrespective of group (main effect time, p = 0.001), with no statistical difference between groups (main effect group, p = 0.272). Three-way ANOVA showed that, CMJ height after stretching was not affected by either stretching protocol at any time point (p = 0.503 to 0.996). Both stretching protocols equally increased ROM on weeks 6 (10.9 ± 13.4%, p < 0.001, d = 0.42), and 9 (21.5 ± 13.4%, p < 0.001, d = 0.78), and this increase was maintained during detraining (17.0 ± 15.0%, p 0.874). Static stretching of long duration applied either as single or multiple bouts of equal duration, results in similar acute and long-term improvements in ROM. Furthermore, both stretching protocols do not acutely affect subsequent CMJ performance, and this effect is not influenced by the large increase in ROM and CMJ overtime.

This study examined the effects of high-volume static stretching training on gastrocnemius muscle architecture, ankle angle and jump height in 21 female adolescent volleyball players. Static stretching of the plantar flexors of one leg (STR) was performed five times/week for 12 weeks, in addition to volleyball training, with the contra-lateral leg used as control (CON). Total duration of stretching per session increased from 540 s (week 1) to 900 s (week 12). At baseline, week 12 and after 3 weeks of detraining, muscle architecture at the middle and the distal part of both gastrocnemius heads (medialis and lateralis) and ankle angle were examined at rest and at maximum dorsiflexion. At the same time-points gastrocnemius cross-sectional area (CSA) was also assessed, while jumping height was measured at baseline and week 12. Following intervention, ankle dorsiflexion increased in both legs with a greater increase in STR than CON (22 ± 20% vs. 8 ± 17%, p < 0.001). Fascicle length at the middle part of gastrocnemius medialis increased only in the STR, at rest (6 ± 7%, p = 0.006) and at maximum dorsiflexion (11 ± 7%, p < 0.001). Fascicle length at maximum dorsiflexion also increased at the distal part of gastrocnemius lateralis of STR (15 ± 13%, p < 0.001). A greater increase in CSA (23 ± 14% vs. 13 ± 14%, p < 0.001) and in one-leg jumping height (27 ± 30% vs. 17 ± 23%, p < 0.001) was found in STR than CON. Changes in ankle angle, fascicle length and CSA were maintained following detraining. High-volume stretching training for 12 weeks results in ankle dorsiflexion, fascicle length and muscle cross sectional area increases in adolescent female volleyball players. These adaptations may partly explain improvements in jump performance.

Despite information from world media, worldwide interest in artistic gymnastics has never been assessed. Memberships, equipment and apparel purchases, subscriptions, and other data have been used as indirect substitutes for gauging interest and participation in gymnastics. A readily available tool for assessing gymnastics interest could be of use in uncovering myriad trends. Aim of Study: This study sought to use a relatively new internet search tool called Google TrendsTM (GT) to assess gymnastics interest by records of search terms used in GoogleTM. Methods: GoogleTM searches involve the use of search terms that are recorded and then accessible by GT. As GoogleTM searches provide access to topics of interest nearly anywhere in the world, by anyone with internet access, then using Google TrendsTM, then GT could be used to harvest the number and types of searches involving the search-terms “men’s gymnastics” and “women’s gymnastics.” The tally of the search terms was obtained using filters such as country, region, and others. GT reports the search-term trends by calculating a relative percentage based on a sample of the largest number of specific search-term use during a particular time. Although the relative percentage approach is somewhat awkward, processing large amounts of data may be considered valuable and otherwise unattainable. Results and Conclusions: Results should be interpreted cautiously. However, the analysis revealed a litany of important trends in the worldwide interest in gymnastics.

This study examined the weight pressures within the gymnastics environment and explored associations between these pressures and eating disorder (ED) symptoms in adolescent female gymnasts. One hundred and forty-seven competitive gymnasts and 122 recreational-level gymnasts (11–17 years old) completed the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), the Weight-Pressures in Sport-Females (WPS-F), the Social Desirability Scale (SDS) and provided information on their training. It was found that 16.3% of competitive gymnasts and 7.4% of non-competitive gymnasts scored ≥20 in EAT-26, indicating disordered eating behavior. Competitive gymnasts scored higher than non-competitive in the total score of EAT-26 (p = 0.027), as well as in the total score of WPS-F, the sport and coaches weight pressures sub-scale and the appearance and performance weight pressures sub-scale (p < 0.001). Multiple regression analyses indicated that sport and coaches weight pressures, appearance and performance weight pressures and body mass index accounted for 30.3% of the variance of EAT-26 in competitive gymnasts, while the appearance and performance weight pressures sub-scale accounted for 16.3% of the variance of EAT-26 in non-competitive gymnasts. Sport and coaches weight pressures are associated with ED in competitive gymnasts, while body appearance and performance demands correlate with ED in female gymnasts irrespective of competitive level.

The purpose of this study was to examine Self-Perceptions and Self-Esteem in adolescent rhythmic gymnasts of different training levels. One hundred female rhythmic gymnasts (32 competitive and 68 recreational level gymnasts), aged 13-15 years, participated in this study. Participants’ Self-Perception and Self-esteem were evaluated through the Greek version of Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (Harter, 1986;2012; Makri-Mpotsari, 2001) which measures nine specific domains of self-perception (Scholastic Competence, Relations with Peers, Relations with Parents, Mathematics Competence, Athletic Competence, Physical Appearance, Language Competence, Behavioral Conduct, Close Friends) consisting of 5-items each. The inventory also includes a ten-item Global Self-Worth scale that measures Self-Esteem. In addition, gymnasts provided information on their training. Competitive level gymnasts scored higher than recreational in the domain of Relations with Parents (p=0.027, d=0.50) and in Global Self-Worth (p=0.046, d=0.45). No differences were found between groups in other self-perception domains (p=0.068 to 0.611, d=0.41 to 0.10). Engaging in competitive sport may enhance adolescent athletes’ Self-Esteem and it is likely that this engagement strengthens the relations of the gymnasts with their parents. Further research is required on the association between training level and Self-Perception domains, and in particular in the case of adolescent female athletes.

The association between force–time characteristics of isometric leg press (ILP) and countermovement jump (CMJ) with vastus lateralis (VL) muscle architecture, was examined in 19 female athletes (aged 23.2 ± 5.4 years). Peak force (PF), average rate of force development (ARFD) and rate of force development (RFD) at different time epochs were calculated from the force–time curve, as well as CMJ jump height and power. Significant correlations were found between ILP-PF and CMJ power (r = 0.658, p < 0.01), while both variables were correlated with VL thickness and fascicle length (r = 0.471 to 0.648, p < 0.05). Significant correlations were also observed between ILP-RFD epochs and VL fascicle length (r = 0.565 to 0.646, p < 0.05) and between CMJ height with VL thickness (r = 0.523, p < 0.05). Furthermore, positive correlations were found between ILP and CMJ in ARFD (r = 0.625, p < 0.01) and RFD epochs (r = 0.464 to 0.566, p < 0.05). ILP-PF and muscle thickness accounted for 52.8% (p = 0.002) of the variance in CMJ power. These results suggest that isometric force time characteristics are associated with power generation during dynamic muscle actions. Furthermore, VL muscle thickness and fascicle length are associated with rapid force production in female athletes, irrespective of the type of muscle action.

Trampoline use has skyrocketed in recent years in a variety of recreational contexts and among athletes in sports ranging from gymnastics and diving to skiing and snowboarding. The purpose of this study was to examine the bounce characteristics elicited by athletes bouncing on three types of trampolines. Tumbl Trak, Standard, and Super Tramp trampolines were assessed by 10 experienced trampoline and acrobatic athletes (5 males, 5 females). A triaxial accelerometer (250 Hz) characterized the 10 highest controlled bounces on each trampoline and each athlete. Repeated measures ANOVAs showed statistical differences in bounce characteristics: time from bounce start to peak acceleration (p

This study examined the effects of a short-duration supplementary strength–power training program on neuromuscular performance and sport-specific skills in adolescent athletes. Twenty-three female “Gymnastics for All” athletes, aged 13 ± 2 years, were divided into a training group (TG, n = 12) and a control group (CG, n = 11). Both groups underwent a test battery before and after 10 weeks of intervention. TG completed, in addition to gymnastics training, a supplementary 7–9 min program that included two rounds of strength and power exercises for arms, torso, and legs, executed in a circuit fashion with 1 min rest between rounds, three times per week. Initially, six exercises were performed (15 s work–15 s rest), while the number of exercises was decreased to four and the duration of each exercise was increased to 30 s (30 s rest) after the fifth week. TG improved countermovement jump performance with one leg (11.5% ± 10.4%, p = 0.002) and two legs (8.2% ± 8.8%, p = 0.004), drop jump performance (14.4% ± 12.6%, p = 0.038), single-leg jumping agility (13.6% ± 5.2%, p = 0.001), and sport-specific performance (8.8% ± 7.4%, p = 0.004), but not 10 m sprint performance (2.4% ± 6.6%, p = 0.709). No change was observed in the CG (p = 0.41 to 0.97). The results of this study indicated that this supplementary strength–power program performed for 7–9 min improves neuromuscular and sport-specific performance after 10 weeks of training.

This study examined heart rate (HR) responses during a sport-specific high-intensity circuit training session to indirectly assess cardiorespiratory stress in child athletes. Seventeen, female gymnasts, aged 9–11 years performed two 5-min 15 s sets of circuit exercise, interspersed by a 3 min rest interval. Each set included five rounds of five gymnastic exercises (7 s work, 7 s rest) executed with maximal effort. During the first circuit training set, peak heart rate (HR) was 192 ± 7 bpm and average HR was 83 ± 4% of maximum HR (HRmax), which was determined in a separate session. In the second set, peak HR and average HR were increased to 196 ± 8 bpm (p < 0.001, d = 0.55) and to 89 ± 4% HRmax (p < 0.001, d = 2.19), respectively, compared with the first set. HR was above 80% HRmax for 4.1 ± 1.2 min during set 1 and this was increased to 5.1 ± 0.4 min in set 2 (p < 0.001, d = 1.15). Likewise, HR was above 90% of HRmax for 2.0 ± 1.2 min in set 1 and was increased to 3.4 ± 1.7 min in set 2 (p < 0.001, d = 0.98). In summary, two 5-min 15 s sets of high-intensity circuit training using sport-specific exercises, increased HR to levels above 80% and 90% HRmax for extended time periods, and thus may be considered as an appropriate stimulus, in terms of intensity, for improving aerobic fitness in child female gymnasts.

Τhis study examined changes in hip joint flexion angle after an intermittent or a continuous static stretching protocol of equal total duration. Twenty-seven female subjects aged 19.9 ± 3.0 years (14 artistic and rhythmic gymnasts and 13 team sports athletes), performed 3 min of intermittent (6 × 30 s with 30 s rest) or continuous static stretching (3 min) of the hip extensors, with an intensity of 80−90 on a 100-point visual analogue scale. The order of stretching was randomized and counterbalanced, and each subject performed both conditions. Hip flexion angle was measured with the straight leg raise test for both legs after warm-up and immediately after stretching. Both stretching types equally increased hip flexion angle by ~6% (continuous: 140.9° ± 20.4° to 148.6° ± 18.8°, p = 0.047; intermittent: 141.8° ± 20.3° to 150.0° ± 18.8°, p = 0.029) in artistic and rhythmic gymnasts. In contrast, in team sports athletes, only intermittent stretching increased hip flexion angle by 13% (from 91.0° ± 7.2° to 102.4° ± 14.5°, p = 0.001), while continuous stretching did not affect hip angle (from 92.4° ± 6.9° vs. 93.1° ± 9.2°, p = 0.99). The different effect of intermittent vs. continuous stretching on hip flexion between gymnasts and team sports athletes suggests that responses to static stretching are dependent on stretching mode and participants training experience.

Gastrocnemius medialis (GM) architecture and ankle angle were compared between flexibility trained (n = 10) and not trained (n = 6) female athletes, aged 8−10 years. Ankle angle, fascicle length, pennation angle and muscle thickness were measured at the mid-belly and the distal part of GM, at rest and at the end of one min of static stretching. Flexibility trained (FT) and not trained athletes (FNT) had similar fascicle length at the medial (4.19 ± 0.37 vs. 4.24 ± 0.54 cm, respectively, p = 0.841) and the distal part of GM (4.25 ± 0.35 vs. 4.18 ± 0.65 cm, respectively, p = 0.780), similar pennation angles, and muscle thickness (p > 0.216), and larger ankle angle at rest (120.9 ± 4.2 vs. 110.9 ± 5.8°, respectively, p = 0.001). During stretching, FT displayed greater fascicle elongation compared to FNT at the medial (+1.67 ± 0.37 vs. +1.28 ± 0.22 cm, respectively, p = 0.048) and the distal part (+1.84 ± 0.67 vs. +0.97 ± 0.97 cm, respectively, p = 0.013), larger change in joint angle and muscle tendon junction displacement (MTJ) (p < 0.001). Muscle thickness was similar in both groups (p > 0.053). Ankle dorsiflexion angle significantly correlated with fascicle elongation at the distal part of GM (r = −0.638, p < 0.01) and MTJ displacement (r = −0.610, p < 0.05). Collectively, FT had greater fascicle elongation at the medial and distal part of GM and greater MTJ displacement during stretching than FNT of similar age.

U.S.A.’s Women’s Gymnastics team has performed exceptionally at the Olympic Games and World Championships in recent years. One of the aspects of performance thought to be important in team events is the prior experience of the athletes. Prior experience can be measured by an athlete’s total number of world level competitions and career durations prior to a given competition. Olympic and World Championship team rosters and team ranks were examined from 1936 to 2016. The number of competitions per athlete and ranks of the teams were tallied and analyzed over the entire period. There were 193 individual athletes and 43 competitions. Athlete career durations were determined by calculation of years between competitions in which the athlete participated. Time-series regression analyses showed no relation between career durations and time while there was a statistically significant trend of team rank reduction (better team finishes) over time. After dividing the study period into two-time segments, there were no statistical differences between early and late periods in career durations, while there were statistical differences in team ranks over the same durations. Olympic Games and World Championships were separated and again there was no statistical difference between the two competition levels on career durations nor did the ranks of the two periods show statistical differences. There did not appear to be a relationship between career durations and team performance ranks.

AIM: Rate of force development (RFD) of the leg extensor muscles is important for jumping performance. Static stretching has been shown to reduce explosive force generation, but little is known regarding changes in muscle architectural characteristics due to stretching and jumping performance alterations. Τhe aim of this study was to determine the effects of two different static stretching protocols (20 or 60 s) on gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscle architectural characteristics and RFD during jumping in a population with long-term flexibility training background. MATERIAL & METHOD: Twelve female professional ballet dancers (age, 25.3 ± 2.2 years) performed 5 days of testing using a single leg stretching and jumping design. RFD during one-leg countermovement jump and jump height were measured on the first visit. On the other four visits, dancers stretched their hamstrings, quadriceps and plantar flexors for 20 or 60 s per muscle group, in a counterbalanced order. Immediately after stretching, RFD and jump height were measured. Fascicle length (FL), pennation angle (PA), and muscle thickness (MT) at the medial and the distal part of GM were assessed at rest and during static stretching for each protocol, using ultrasonography. RESULTS: There was a main effect of time for FL, PA, and MT (p < 0.01) with no difference between stretching protocols, at the medial and distal parts of GM, in FL (p = 0.373 and p = 0.651, respectively), PA (p = 0.724 and p = 0.477, respectively) and MT (p = 0.314 and p = 0.444, respectively). Greater FL elongation was observed at the medial compared to the distal part of GM (p = 0.013) during the long stretching protocol. RFD significantly decreased after the long stretching protocol (p = 0.019), while it remained unchanged in the short stretching protocol (p = 0.061). Significant correlations were found between resting FL at the medial part of GM and RFD (r = −0.645, p = 0.05) and between fascicle elongation at the medial part of GM and CMJ height (r = 0.717, p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The long static stretching protocol induced non-uniform adaptations along GM length and decreased RFD, suggesting that prolonged stretching durations should be avoided immediately before activities requiring rapid force production.

AIM: Energy supply in artistic gymnastics is derived mainly through the anaerobic metabolism, due to the brief duration of the competitive routines. However, during training, gymnasts perform repetitive exercises and routines, which may require aerobic adaptations, in order to recover fast and maintain high quality of execution. To improve this aspect of fitness, coaches use high-intensity interval circuit training with sport-specific exercises. Despite the popularity of this training method, there is limited information regarding the demands placed on aerobic metabolism, especially in very young athletes. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine heart rate responses during a high-intensity functional training session in female child gymnasts, to indirectly assess the contribution of aerobic energy metabolism. MATERIAL & METHOD: Seventeen girls aged 9.8 ± 0.8 years (height, 1.38 ± 0.10 m; body mass, 33.7 ± 7.25 kg) performed two 5-min sets, each consisting of five rounds of five gymnastics exercises (5–7 s work and equal rest) executed at maximal effort. The two sets were separated by a 3-min recovery period. Prior to the main measurement, athletes performed a 20-m shuttle run test until exhaustion where maximum heart rate (HRmax) was measured and the maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max) was estimated. Heart rate was continuously monitored during all sessions using a Polar team 2 system. RESULTS: VO2max was 47.8 ± 3.0 mL kg-1 min-1 and HRmax was 207 ± 5 bpm. During the first set, peak HR was 192 ± 7 bpm and average HR was 171 ± 8 bpm (83% HRmax). During the second set, peak HR was 196 ± 8 bpm and average HR was increased to 186 ± 6 bpm (90% HRmax, p < 0.001 compared with set 1). The time during which HR was above 90% of HRmax was 2.0 ± 1.2min in set 1 and increased to 3.4 ± 1.7 min in set 2 (p < 0.01). HR recovery was similar after both sets, with HR decreasing by about 30% (to 139 ± 7 bpm and 134 ± 10 bpm) after 2 min (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: These results suggest that high-intensity training using sport-specific exercises increases HR to levels above 90% HRmax for extended time periods. Thus, this type of training may be an appropriate stimulus for concurrent improvements in muscle strength/power and aerobic fitness.

AIM: Ballet dancers’ performance is based on the execution of complex technical skills that require an unusually large range of motion (ROM) and increased muscular power. Static stretching is commonly used to increase ROM, but it may induce a transient decrease in muscle power. However, this may depend on the population and stretching protocol. The purpose of this study was to compare the acute effect of a short (20 s) vs. a long (60 s) static stretching protocol on joint ROM and jumping performance in ballet dancers. MATERIAL & METHOD: Sixteen female professional ballet dancers (age, 25.9 ± 2.7; dancing experience, 19.6 ± 3.8 y) performed 5 days of testing using a single-leg stretching and jumping design. Baseline measurements of one-leg countermovement jump (CMJ) and a ballet technical jump with one leg (“temps levé”, TL) were performed on the first visit. On the other four visits, dancers stretched their hamstrings, quadriceps and plantar flexors for 20 or 60 s per muscle group and then performed a CMJ or a TL in a counterbalanced order. This combination of stretching and jumping resulted in four conditions: long stretch-CMJ, long stretch-TL, short stretch-CMJ and short stretch-TL. In all conditions, ankle joint ROM was measured at rest and immediately after stretching. RESULTS: ROM significantly increased following stretching (p = 0.01) with no difference between stretching protocols (p = 0.505). CMJ height decreased post-stretching following both stretching protocols (p = 0.01); however, the long-duration static stretching induced a larger decrease in jump height (p = 0.020). TL height remained unchanged after the short and the long stretching protocols (7.7 ± 2.1 to 7.4 ± 2.2 vs. 7.7 ± 2.1 to 7.2 ± 2.0 cm, respectively, p = 0.701). CONCLUSION: Both stretching protocols similarly increased ankle joint ROM and decreased one-leg CMJ height immediately post-stretching. Also, both stretching protocols did not decrease TL height, probably because dancers are able to compensate for the stretch-induced deficit in muscle power through motor coordination.

Aim: It is well documented that static stretching acutely increases range of motion (ROM) in a dose-dependent manner. However, most previous studies have utilized intermittent stretching protocols, and it is not known if intermittent and continuous stretches elicit different changes in joint ROM and, in particular, in flexibility-trained subjects. The aim of this study was to examine changes in hip joint ROM after an intermittent or a continuous static stretching protocol of equal total duration. Material & Method: Twenty-seven female subjects (age, 19.9 ± 3.0 years; height, 167.3 ± 6.1 cm; body mass, 58.2 ± 5.2 kg), 14 artistic and rhythmic gymnasts, and 13 recreationally active participants performed 3 min of intermittent (6 × 30 s with 30 s rest) or continuous stretching (3 min) of the hamstring muscles, with an intensity of 8–9 on a 10-point visual analogue scale. Hip joint ROM was measured for both legs after warm-up and immediately after stretching. The same individuals performed both conditions with alternate legs in a randomized, counterbalanced order. Data were analysed using mixed-model three-way ANOVA. Results: In the untrained participants, only intermittent stretching increased ROM by 13% (from 91.0 ± 7.2° to 102.4 ± 14.5°, p = 0.001), while continuous stretching did not affect ROM (from 92.4 ± 6.9° to 93.1 ± 9.2°, p = 0.99). In the trained participants, both stretching types equally increased ROM by ~6% (continuous, 140.9 ± 20.4° to 148.6 ± 18.8°, p = 0.047; intermittent, 141.8 ± 20.3° to 150.0 ± 18.8°, p = 0.029). Conclusions: The different effect of intermittent vs. continuous stretching on hip ROM between trained and untrained subjects suggests that stretching mode is an important variable when examining the acute effects of static stretching on ROM enhancement.

AIM: This study examined the effects of a high-intensity, short-duration supplementary strength-power training program on neuromuscular performance and sport-specific skills of young female “Gymnastics for All” athletes. MATERIAL & METHOD: Twenty-four female “Gymnastics for all” athletes aged 13 ± 2 years, with at least two years of competitive-level training experience, took part in this study. Participants were divided into training (TG, n = 13) and control groups (CG, n = 11), who completed the same 3-day per week gymnastics training program over 10 weeks, with the TG completing a supplementary 7–9 min long strength-power program at the end of each training session. This training program consisted of two rounds of strength and power exercises for arms and legs, executed in a circuit fashion with 1-min rest between rounds. The exercises used included plyometrics for upper and lower body using body weight resistance, as well as strength-power exercises using elastic bands and light kettle bells. Participants performed each exercise at maximum voluntary effort, as fast and as hard as possible. Initially, six different exercises were performed per round (15 s work and 15 s rest), while the number of exercises per round was gradually decreased to four and the duration of each exercise was increased to 30 s (with 30 s rest). Data were analyzed using mixed-model 2-way ANOVA (group × time). RESULTS: After 10 weeks of training the TG improved countermovement jump performance with one leg (by 11.9 ± 2.8%, p = 0.001) and two legs (by 7.1 ± 2.7%, p = 0.026), drop jump performance (by 11.9 ± 2.8%, p = 0.002), single-leg jumping agility (by 12.9 ± 1.5%, p = 0.001), sport-specific performance, i.e., repeated rondats (by 8.2 ± 2.1%, p = 0.004), but not 10-m sprint performance (2.5 ± 1.7%, p = 0.23). There was no change in these neuromuscular performance parameters in the CG (p = 0.13 to 0.94). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study show that this supplementary strength-power program performed for only 7–9 min at the end of each session improved neuromuscular and sport-specific performance after 10 weeks of training.

AIM: Τhe mechanisms underpinning long-term changes in muscle architectural characteristics and joint range of motion (ROM) following static stretching in humans remain under question, and data are sparse for growing athletes. It is possible that the characteristics of the stretching protocols used in previous training studies were not adequate to induce significant changes. An alternative approach would be to compare populations with different chronic flexibility training backgrounds. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine differences in gastrocnemius medialis (GM) architectural characteristics at rest and during 1 min of static stretching between child athletes with different flexibility training backgrounds. MATERIAL & METHOD: Ten female rhythmic gymnasts (RG; age. 9.0 ± 0.7 years) were compared to six volleyball athletes (VA; age, 9.0 ± 0.6 years). Fascicle length, pennation angle and muscle thickness at the medial and distal part of GM, and ankle ROM were measured at rest and during 1 min of static stretching using ultrasonography. Data were analysed using two-way ANOVA for repeated measures on two factors (time x sport). RESULTS: At rest, RG displayed similar fascicle length compared to VA at the medial (4.19 ± 0.37 vs. 4.24 ± 0.54 cm, respectively, p = 0.841) and the distal part of GM (4.25 ± 0.35 vs. 4.18 ± 0.65 cm, respectively, p = 0.780). Pennation angle and muscle thickness were also similar in the two groups at the medial (p = 0.519 and p = 0.216, respectively) and the distal part of the gastrocnemius (p = 0.998 and p = 0.433, respectively). Ankle angle before stretching was greater in RG compared with VA (120.9 ± 4.2 vs. 110.9 ± 5.8°, respectively, p = 0.001). During the 1 min of static stretching, RG displayed greater fascicle elongation compared to the VA at the medial (5.86 ± 0.29 vs 5.52 ± 0.53 cm, p = 0.048) and the distal part (6.09 ± 0.49 vs 5.15 ± 0.65 cm, p = 0.013), as well as greater maximal ankle dorsiflexion (p < 0.001) and muscle tendon junction displacement (p < 0.001). No differences were found between groups in pennation angle (p > 0.458) and muscle thickness (p ˃ 0.237). CONCLUSIONS: Muscle architectural properties are similar at rest in child athletes with different flexibility backgrounds. However, muscle fascicle elongation is greater in rhythmic gymnasts compared to volleyball athletes and this may contribute to the greater ankle ROM observed in rhythmic gymnasts.

Background: This study examined the effects of 8 weeks of plyometric training on jumping, sprinting, and change of direction (COD) performance. Methods: Fifty female 7−9-year-old gymnasts were randomly assigned to a plyometric training group (PG; n = 33), that performed supplementary plyometric training twice per week, and a control group (CG; n = 17) that continued regular training. The following tests were performed before and after the intervention: 10 and 20 m sprints, 5 + 5 m and 10 + 10 m COD tests, one-leg and two-leg countermovement jump (CMJ), drop jump (DJ), squat jump (SJ), and standing long jump (SLJ). Results: Only a main effect for time was found for all jumping performance parameters (p = 0.001). However, the improvement of one- and two-leg CMJ in PG had a greater effect size than CG (0.72 and 0.67 vs. 0.34 and 0.18, respectively). Group × time interactions were found for 10 and 20 m sprint tests (p = 0.018 and p = 0.011, respectively) and for 10 + 10 m COD (p = 0.008) with the post hoc test showing improvement only for the PG (p = 0.001, 0.001, and 0.003 and d = 1.1, 1.14, and 0.6, respectively). Conclusions: Supplementary plyometric training increased sprint and COD performance more than regular gymnastics training, while jumping performance was equally improved in both groups.

Background: This study examined gastrocnemius medialis (GM) architectural properties and ankle joint range of motion (ROM) between female athletes with different flexibility training background. Methods: Elite rhythmic gymnasts (n = 10) were compared to national level volleyball athletes (n = 10). Fascicle length, pennation angle and muscle thickness at the medial and the distal part of GM, and ankle ROM were measured at rest and during 1 min of static stretching. Results: At rest, rhythmic gymnasts displayed longer fascicles compared to volleyball athletes, at the medial (5.93 ± 0.27 vs. 4.74 ± 0.33 mm, respectively, p = 0.001) and the distal part of GM (5.63 ± 0.52 vs. 4.57 ± 0.51 mm, respectively, p = 0.001), smaller pennation angle at the medial part (22.4 ± 2.5 vs. 25.8 ± 2.4°; respectively, p = 0.001) and greater ankle angle (121.7 ± 4.1 vs. 113.2 ± 3.7°, respectively, p = 0.001). During the 1 min of static stretching, gymnasts displayed greater fascicle elongation at the distal part (p = 0.026), greater maximal ankle dorsiflexion (p < 0.001) and muscle tendon junction displacement (p < 0.001) with no difference between groups in pennation angles (p > 0.145), muscle thickness (p > 0.105), and fascicle elongation at mid-belly (p = 0.063). Conclusions: Longer muscle fascicles at rest and greater fascicle elongation at the distal part of GM may contribute to the greater ankle ROM observed in rhythmic gymnasts.