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Motion opponency, first observed within the primate middle temporal cortex (MT), refers to the suppressing effect of opposite motion directions on neuronal activity. Namely, when opposing motion directional signals stimulate an MT neuron's receptive field, this neuron's response is comparable with that induced by flicker noise. Under such suppression, it is unknown whether any directional information is still represented at MT. In this study, we applied support vector machine (SVM) learning to human functional magnetic resonance imaging data to investigate if any motion defined orientation information was still available from suppressed MT. We found that, at least at the level of ±45° discrimination, such orientation information was still available. Interestingly, after behavioural perceptual learning that improved human discrimination of fine orientation discrimination (e.g. 42° vs. 48°) using the MT‐suppressive motion stimuli, the SVM discrimination of ±45° worsened when functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) signals at post‐learning MT were used. This result is consistent with findings in Thompson et al. (2013) that, post‐perceptual learning, MT suppression was not released, suggesting that motion opponency was perhaps functionally too important for perceptual learning to overcome. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The eyes of nymphalid butterflies, investigated with incident illumination, show colourful facet reflection patterns—the eye shine—which is uniform or heterogeneous, dependent on the species. Facet colours suggest that the ommatidia contain different sets of photoreceptors and screening pigments, but how the colours and the cell characteristics are associated has not been clearly established. Here, we analyse the retinae of two nymphalids, Apatura ilia, which has a uniform eyeshine, and Charaxes jasius, a species with a heterogeneous eye shine, using single-cell recordings, spectroscopy and optical pupillometry. Apatura has UV-, blue- and green-sensitive photoreceptors, allocated into three ommatidial types. The UV- and blue-sensitive cells are long visual fibres (LVFs), receiving opponent input from the green-sensitive short visual fibres (SVFs). Charaxes has an expanded set of photoreceptors, allocated into three additional, red-reflecting ommatidial types. All red ommatidia contain green-sensitive LVFs, receiving opponent input from red receptors. In both species, the SVFs do not receive any opponent input. The simple retina of Apatura with three ommatidial types and two colour-opponent channels can support trichromatic vision. Charaxes has six ommatidial types and three colour-opponent channels. Its expanded receptor set can support tetrachromatic vision. This article is part of the theme issue 'Understanding colour vision: molecular, physiological, neuronal and behavioural studies in arthropods'. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many butterflies, the ancestral trichromatic insect colour vision, based on UV-, blue- and green-sensitive photoreceptors, is extended with red-sensitive cells. Physiological evidence for red receptors has been missing in nymphalid butterflies, although some species can discriminate red hues well. In eight species from genera Archaeoprepona, Argynnis, Charaxes, Danaus, Melitaea, Morpho, Heliconius and Speyeria, we found a novel class of green-sensitive photoreceptors that have hyperpolarizing responses to stimulation with red light. These green-positive, red-negative (G+R–) cells are allocated to positions R1/2, normally occupied by UV and blue-sensitive cells. Spectral sensitivity, polarization sensitivity and temporal dynamics suggest that the red opponent units (R–) are the basal photoreceptors R9, interacting with R1/2 in the same ommatidia via direct inhibitory synapses. We found the G+R– cells exclusively in butterflies with red-shining ommatidia, which contain longitudinal screening pigments. The implementation of the red colour channel with R9 is different from pierid and papilionid butterflies, where cells R5–8 are the red receptors. The nymphalid red-green opponent channel and the potential for tetrachromacy seem to have been switched on several times during evolution, balancing between the cost of neural processing and the value of extended colour information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. Currently, there is a restructuring of the system of training scientific and scientific-pedagogical personnel of the highest qualification. A number of the top-ranking universities and research institutes are given the right to award their own academic degrees. However, the overwhelming majority of dissertational councils (about 2000) continue to work under the guidance and in accordance with the regulatory documents of the Higher Attestation Commission. Therefore, the improvement of the existing system is still relevant.The aims of this article are the following: to consider the main problems and trends emerging in the process of opposing dissertations; to find out the difficulties and their causes; to define possible ways to reduce current problems.Methodology and research methods. The methods involve: analysis of normative documents and scientific publications; methods of expert assessments, self-reflection and synthesis of personal experience of the author.Results and scientific novelty. The main objectives and the existing drawbacks of the work of official opponents are identified. The following questions that arise when opposing dissertations are discussed: the choice and appointment of official opponents by the Dissertation Council, the specifics of the opponents’ performance in the defense process and the payment for their work. It is noted that increasing requirements for opposing dissertations and opponents themselves, increasing the responsibility of opponents leads to additional difficulties in their work, in particular, the increase in labour costs that are not adequately compensated. It is concluded that many problems in opposing dissertations are objective in nature and cannot be overcome only by the forces of the opponent himself. Possible ways of solving the detected problems are indicated. Accordingly, along with increasing requirements and responsibilities in regulatory documents, a complex of the organizational and technological measures should be provided to facilitate the work of the opponent, his additional stimulation, including the financial one.Practical significance. The author believes that the approaches and recommendations proposed in this article will help to increase the effectiveness of the opponents’ work and, accordingly, assessment system enhancement of the research consistency and academic degrees awarding.

The study of color vision encompasses many disciplines, including art, biochemistry, biophysics, brain imaging, cognitive neuroscience, color preferences, colorimetry, computer modelling, design, electrophysiology, language and cognition, molecular genetics, neuroscience, physiological optics, psychophysics and physiological optics. Coupled with the elusive nature of the subjective experience of color, this wide range of disciplines makes the study of color as challenging as it is fascinating. This overview of the special issue Color: Cone Opponency and Beyond outlines the state of the science of color, and points to some of the many questions that remain to be answered in this exciting field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper examines the notion, widespread in the contemporary color science, that there are certain hues, specifically focal red, yellow, green and blue (RYGB), that are unique or privileged in human prelinguistic color perception, all other chromatic hues being perceptually composed of these. I successively consider and reject all motivations that have been provided for this opinion; namely the linguistic (unique hues as referents of necessary and sufficient color descriptors), 'phenomenological' (unique hues as phenomenologically pure color experiences), and some minor or historical motivations. I conclude that, contrary to the standard opinion, there is no solid reason to claim that the RYGB hues are unique among colors in a sense that would allow for direct neurophysiological explanation. The notion also has no relevance for the construction of perceptual color spaces and is not defensible as an explanatory principle with respect to the existing crosslinguistic patterns of color categorization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the human, cone photoreceptors (L, M, and S) and the melanopsin-containing, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) are active at daytime light intensities. Signals from cones are combined both additively and in opposition to create the perception of overall light and color. Similar mechanisms seem to be at work in the control of the pupil's response to light. Uncharacterized however, is the relative contribution of melanopsin and S cones, with their overlapping, short-wavelength spectral sensitivities. We measured the response of the human pupil to the separate stimulation of the cones and melanopsin at a range of temporal frequencies under photopic conditions. The S-cone and melanopsin photoreceptor channels were found to be low-pass, in contrast to a band-pass response of the pupil to L- and M-cone signals. An examination of the phase relationships of the evoked responses revealed that melanopsin signals add with signals from L and M cones but are opposed by signals from S cones in control of the pupil. The opposition of the S cones is revealed in a seemingly paradoxical dilation of the pupil to greater S-cone photon capture. This surprising result is explained by the neurophysiological properties of ipRGCs found in animal studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Affective valence lies on a spectrum ranging from punishment to reward. The coding of such spectra in the brain almost always involves opponency between pairs of systems or structures. There is ample evidence for the role of dopamine in the appetitive half of this spectrum, but little agreement about the existence, nature, or role of putative aversive opponents such as serotonin. In this review, we consider the structure of opponency in terms of previous biases about the nature of the decision problems that animals face, the conflicts that may thus arise between Pavlovian and instrumental responses, and an additional spectrum joining invigoration to inhibition. We use this analysis to shed light on aspects of the role of serotonin and its interactions with dopamine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Serotonin is a neuromodulator that is extensively entangled in fundamental aspects of brain function and behavior. We present a computational view of its involvement in the control of appetitively and aversively motivated actions. We first describe a range of its effects in invertebrates, endowing specific structurally fixed networks with plasticity at multiple spatial and temporal scales. We then consider its rather widespread distribution in the mammalian brain. We argue that this is associated with a more unified representational and functional role in aversive processing that is amenable to computational analyses with the kinds of reinforcement learning techniques that have helped elucidate dopamine's role in appetitive behavior. Finally, we suggest that it is only a partial reflection of dopamine because of essential asymmetries between the natural statistics of rewards and punishments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many species, reproduction requires detecting, recognizing, and courting a potential mate. Progress through these stages is guided by cues involving a wide range of sensory systems. Here we explore the tasks of detection, recognition, and response in terms of the ultrasonic songs of male mice presented with odor cues contained in urine. We find that the quantity of singing, more so than specific features of the songs, varies depending upon the odor cue. For experienced male mice, responses to female odor cues depend only on the concentration of female cues and are independent of the presence of male cues. However, for naive mice, male cues appear to be synergistic for the response to female cues. We therefore find no direct behavioral evidence for a role of opponent neural processing, such as lateral inhibition, in distinguishing sex by olfactory cues. However, modeling demonstrates that lateral inhibition could be one possible mechanism to account for the switch from synergy to independence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In the ultimate stage of the Adelson–Bergen motion energy model [Adelson, E. H., & Bergen, J. (1985). Spatiotemporal energy models for the perception of motion. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 2, 284–299], motion is derived from the difference between directionally opponent energies E L and E R. However, Georgeson and Scott-Samuel [Georgeson, M. A., & Scott-Samuel, N. E. (1999). Motion contrast: A new metric for direction discrimination. Vision Research, 39, 4393–4402] demonstrated that motion contrast—a metric that normalizes opponent motion energy (E L − E R) by flicker energy (E L + E R)—is a better descriptor of human direction discrimination. In a previous study [Rainville, S. J. M., Makous, W. L., & Scott-Samuel, N. E. (2002). The spatial properties of opponent-motion normalization. Vision Research, 42, 1727–1738], we used a lateral masking paradigm to show that opponent-motion normalization is selective for flicker position, orientation, and spatial-frequency. In the present study, we used a superposition masking paradigm and compared results to lateral masking data, as the two masking types activate local and remote normalization mechanisms differentially. Although selectivity for flicker orientation and spatial frequency varied across observers, bandwidths were similar across lateral and superimposed masking conditions. Additional experiments demonstrated that normalization signals are pooled over a spatial region whose aspect ratio and size are consistent with those of local motion detectors. Together, results show no evidence of remote normalization signals predicted by broadband inhibitory models [(e.g.) Heeger, D. J. (1992). Normalization of cell responses in cat striate cortex. Visual Neuroscience, 9, 181–197; Foley, J. M. (1994). Human luminance pattern–vision mechanisms: Masking experiments require a new model. Journal of the Optical Society of America A—Optics and Image Science, 11, 1710–1719] but support a local normalization process whose spatial properties are inherited from low-level motion detectors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Studies of second-order visual processing have primarily been concerned with understanding the mechanisms for detecting spatiotemporal variations in such attributes as contrast, orientation, spatial frequency, etc. Here, we have examined the orientation characteristics of second-order processes using bandpass noise whose Fourier energy is sinusoidally modulated across orientation, rather than across space or time. Sensitivity for detecting orientation-energy modulations was measured as a function of modulation frequency. The sensitivity function was bandpass, with a pronounced peak at an orientation frequency of 4 cycles/π. An inverse Fourier transform of the sensitivity function revealed a filter profile displaying a centre-surround antagonism across orientation, with an excitatory centre within 6–9 deg and inhibitory lobes at 15–20 deg from the filter’s centre. The degree of centre-surround antagonism increased with stimulus size far beyond the spatial range of the first-order filters (more than 64 times the dominant spatial wavelength of the noise carrier). These results suggest that second-order processing involves ‘orientation-opponent’ channels that extract differences in first-order outputs across orientation over a wide area of the visual field. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The final stage of the Adelson–Bergen model [J. Opt. Soc. Am. A 2 (1985) 284] computes net motion as the difference between directionally opposite energies EL and ER. However, Georgeson and Scott-Samuel [Vis. Res. 39 (1999) 4393] found that human direction discrimination is better described by motion contrast (Cm)––a metric where opponent energy (EL−ER) is divided by flicker energy (EL+ER). In the present paper, we used a lateral masking paradigm to investigate the spatial properties of flicker energy involved in the normalization of opponent energy. Observers discriminated between left and right motion while viewing a checkerboard in which half of the checks contained a drifting sinusoid and the other half contained flicker (i.e. a counterphasing sinusoid). The relative luminance contrasts of flicker and motion checks determined the checkerboard''s overall motion contrast Cm. We obtained selectivity functions for opponent-motion normalization by measuring Cm thresholds whilst varying the orientation, spatial frequency, or size of flicker checks. In all conditions, performance (percent correct) decayed lawfully as we decreased motion contrast, validating the Cm metric for our stimuli. Thresholds decreased with check size and also improved as we increased either the orientation or spatial-frequency difference between motion and flicker checks. Our data are inconsistent with Heeger-type normalization models [Vis. Neurosci. 9 (1992) 181] in which excitatory inputs are normalized by a non-selective pooling of inhibitory inputs, but data are consistent with the implicit assumption in Georgeson and Scott-Samuel''s model that flicker normalization is localized in orientation, scale, and space. However, our lateral masking paradigm leaves open the possibility that the spatial properties of flicker normalization would be different if opponent and flicker energies spatially overlapped. Further characterization of motion contrast will require models of the spatial, temporal, and joint space–time properties of mechanisms mediating opponent-motion and flicker normalization. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Anatomical and pharmacological evidence suggests that the dorsal raphe serotonin system and the ventral tegmental and substantia nigra dopamine system may act as mutual opponents. In the light of the temporal difference model of the involvement of the dopamine system in reward learning, we consider three aspects of motivational opponency involving dopamine and serotonin. We suggest that a tonic serotonergic signal reports the long-run average reward rate as part of an average-case reinforcement learning model; that a tonic dopaminergic signal reports the long-run average punishment rate in a similar context; and finally speculate that a phasic serotonin signal might report an ongoing prediction error for future punishment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Zebrafish are sensitive to both rewarding and aversive feedback. • High-dose apomorphine induced behavioural indecision, which was reversed only by high-dose escitalopram. • Zebrafish responses to apomorphine and escitalopram is congruent with opponency theories. • Zebrafish can likely be applied as a screening test for anti-compulsive drug action. Cognitive flexibility, shown to be impaired in patients presenting with compulsions, is dependent on balanced dopaminergic and serotonergic interaction. Towards the development of a zebrafish (Danio rerio) screening test for anti-compulsive drug action, we manipulated social reward appraisal under different contexts by means of dopaminergic (apomorphine) and serotonergic (escitalopram) intervention. Seven groups of zebrafish (n = 6 per group) were exposed for 24 days (1 h per day) to either control (normal tank water), apomorphine (50 or 100 μg/L), escitalopram (500 or 1000 μg/L) or a combination (A100/E500 or A100/E1000 μg/L). Contextual reward appraisal was assessed over three phases i.e. Phase 1 (contingency association), Phase 2 (dissociative testing), and Phase 3 (re-associative testing). We demonstrate that 1) sight of social conspecifics is an inadequate motivational reinforcer under circumstances of motivational conflict, 2) dopaminergic and serotonergic intervention lessens the importance of an aversive stimulus, increasing the motivational valence of social reward, 3) while serotoninergic intervention maintains reward directed behavior, high-dose dopaminergic intervention bolsters cue-directed responses and 4) high-dose escitalopram reversed apomorphine-induced behavioral inflexibility. The results reported here are supportive of current dopamine-serotonin opponency theories and confirm the zebrafish as a potentially useful species in which to investigate compulsive-like behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The jawless fish that were ancestral to all living vertebrates had four spectral cone types that were probably served by chromatic-opponent retinal circuits. Subsequent evolution of photoreceptor spectral sensitivities is documented for many vertebrate lineages, giving insight into the ecological adaptation of color vision. Beyond the photoreceptors, retinal color processing is best understood in mammals, especially the blue ON system, which opposes short- against long-wavelength receptor responses. For other vertebrates that often have three or four types of cone pigment, new findings from zebrafish are extending older work on teleost fish and reptiles to reveal rich color circuitry. Here, horizontal cells establish diverse and complex spectral responses even in photoreceptor outputs. Cone-selective connections to bipolar cells then set up color-opponent synaptic layers in the inner retina, which lead to a large variety of color-opponent channels for transmission to the brain via retinal ganglion cells.