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The Antarctic ecosystem is a combination of conditions including extremely low values of temperature. The environmental temperature is one of the parameters thoroughly affecting the structure and composition of fungal membranes lipids. The psychrophilic fungi generally increase the disorder within macromolecules to maintain membrane fluidity at low temperatures. The strategy adopted by Antarctic fungi is to increase the proportion of unsaturated fatty acid that allows maintaining a semi-fluid state of the membranes. This ecological feature might be exploited for using Antarctic fungi as potential alternative source of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) for human diet.This study provides both the characterization of fungal strains isolated from Antarctica by lipidomic analysis and the laboratory/large-scale production of fungal biomass with high content of beneficial PUFAs. In detail, three fungal species isolated from environmental matrices from Antarctica were tested and identified at genome level. Growth experiments to evaluate the influence of temperature and substrate in the yield in biomass and unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) were conducted. The results showed that the selected fungi have a high percentage of UFA compared to saturated ones; low growth temperatures increase the yield in linolenic fatty acid (C18:3); the biomass yield depends on the composition of the growth substrate and a satisfying qualitative-quantitative yield has also been obtained by using an agri-food chain waste product as growth substrate.IMPORTANCEThe presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in human and animal diet is gaining attention because PUFAs have several recognized functional properties: they modulate immune response, have anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory activity, cardio-protective effect and reduce blood LDL cholesterol levels. Human diets typically do not contain sufficient PUFAs because foods rich in PUFAs are few and it is therefore necessary to supplement this diet. Food supplements with these types of fatty acid currently commercially available come from marine fish oils and this source is no longer sustainable. It is necessary to develop efficient industrial processes capable of producing good quality PUFAs and in quantity, even using as carbon and nitrogen sources agro-industrial chains’ (in our case spent yeast from brewing and whey waste) waste products. Like microorganisms we used Antarctic fungi because they are adapted at very low temperature increasing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acid that allows maintaining a semi-fluid state of the membranes.

Trichoderma hamatum FBL 587 isolated from DDT-contaminated agricultural soils stands out as a remarkable strain with DDT-resistance and the ability to enhance DDT degradation process in soil. Here, whole genome sequencing and RNA-Seq studies for T. hamatum FBL 587 under exposure to DDT were performed. In the 38.9 Mb-genome of T. hamatum FBL 587, 10,944 protein-coding genes were predicted and annotated, including those of relevance to mycoremediation such as production of secondary metabolites and siderophores. The genome-scale transcriptional responses of T. hamatum FBL 587 to DDT exposure showed 1706 upregulated genes, some of which were putatively involved in the cellular translocation and degradation of DDT. With regards to DDT removal capacity, it was found upregulation of metabolizing enzymes such as P450s, and potentially of downstream DDT-transforming enzymes such as epoxide hydrolases, FAD-dependent monooxygenases, glycosyl- and glutathione-transferases. Based on transcriptional responses, the DDT degradation pathway could include transmembrane transporters of DDT, antioxidant enzymes for oxidative stress due to DDT exposure, as well as lipases and biosurfactants for the enhanced solubility of DDT. Our study provides the first genomic and transcriptomic data on T. hamatum FBL 587 under exposure to DDT, which are a base for a better understanding of mycoremediation strategies for DDT-polluted sites.

Modern agriculture is dependent on phosphate rock (PR), which is a nonrenewable resource. Improvement of phosphorus (P) availability for crops in agricultural soils represents a key strategy to slow down the depletion of PR. The aim of this study was to identify potential P biofertilisers among saprotrophic fungal species. We tested 30 fungal strains belonging to 28 taxa (4 Zygomycota and 24 Ascomycota) and with different life strategies. The study showed that many saprotrophic fungi have the ability to mobilise P from insoluble forms according to a variety of mechanisms. Our results expand the pool of P solubilising fungal species, also suggesting a new solubilisation index and shedding light on parameters that could be basic in the selection of efficient soil P-biofertilisers fungi. Rhizopus stolonifer var. stolonifer, Aspergillus niger and Alternaria alternata were found to be the best performing strains in terms of amounts of TCP solubilisation.

In this study, we propose a new genus, Victoriomyces, with a new species, Victoriomyces antarcticus, isolated from soil samples collected in Victoria Land, Antarctica. To determine its taxonomic status and evolutionary relationships, phylogenetic analysis was performed on DNA sequences from the nuclear 18S rRNA, 28S rRNA and the second largest subunit of RNA polymerase II (RPB2) genes. Victoriomyces antarcticus constitutes one well-supported distinct lineage within the Cephalothecaceae (family incertae sedis in Sordariomycetes), in which the only recognised asexual morphs belong to the genus Phialemonium and to Acremonium thermophilum. Victoriomyces antarcticus can be clearly distinguished from these taxa by means of DNA sequence analysis and its morphological traits that consist in having a Metarhizium-like asexual morph, dark red-coloured disk-like structures, immature bodies and the production of an intense red pigment in the growth media. Finally, we inferred the divergence time of V. antarcticus and the Cephalothecaceae using Bayesian analysis and secondary calibration. The holotype of V. antarcticus is FBL 165. The ex-type strain has been deposited as MUT 3686T and CCF 6158T. An additional strain of the species is FBL 577. The MycoBank number is MB 823713 for the genus and MB 823714 for the species.

The study of the soil microbial community represents an important step in better understanding the environmental context. Therefore, biological characterisation and physicochemical integration are keys when defining contaminated sites. Fungi play a fundamental role in the soil, by providing and supporting ecological services for ecosystems and human wellbeing. In this research, 52 soil fungal taxa were isolated from in situ pilot reactors installed to a contaminated site in Czech Republic with a high concentration of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH). Among the identified isolates, 12 strains were selected to evaluate their tolerance to different isomers of HCH by using specific indices (Rt:Rc; T.I.) and to test their potential in xenobiotic biotransformation. Most of the selected taxa was not significantly affected by exposure to HCH, underlining the elevated tolerance of all the tested fungal taxa, and different metabolic intermediates of HCH dechlorination were observed. The oxidative stress responses to HCH for two selected species, Penicillium simplicissimum and Trichoderma harzianum, were investigated in order to explore their toxic responses and to evaluate their potential functioning in bioremediation of contaminated environments. This research suggests that the isolated fungal species may provide opportunities for new eco-friendly, integrated and cost-effective solutions for environmental management and remediation, considering their efficient adaptation to stressful conditions.

DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was used worldwide as an organochlorine insecticide to control agricultural pests and vectors of several insect-borne human diseases. It was banned in most industrialized countries; however, due to its persistence in the environment, DDT residues remain in environmental compartments, becoming long-term sources of exposure. To identify and select fungal species suitable for bioremediation of DDT-contaminated sites, soil samples were collected from DDT-contaminated agricultural soils in Poland, and 38 fungal taxa among 18 genera were isolated. Two of them, Trichoderma hamatum FBL 587 and Rhizopus arrhizus FBL 578, were tested for tolerance in the presence of 1-mg liter(−1) DDT concentration by using two indices based on fungal growth rate and biomass production (the tolerance indices Rt:Rc and TI), showing a clear tolerance to DDT. The two selected strains were studied to evaluate catabolic versatility on 95 carbon sources with or without DDT by using the Phenotype MicroArray system and to investigate the induced oxidative stress responses. The two strains were able to use most of the substrates provided, resulting in both high metabolic versatility and ecological functionality in the use of carbon sources, despite the presence of DDT. The activation of specific metabolic responses with species-dependent antioxidant enzymes to cope with the induced chemical stress has been hypothesized, since the presence of DDT promoted a higher formation of reactive oxygen species in fungal cells than the controls. The tested fungi represent attractive potential candidates for bioremediation of DDT-contaminated soil and are worthy of further investigations. IMPORTANCE The spread and environmental accumulation of DDT over the years represent not only a threat to human health and ecological security but also a major challenge because of the complex chemical processes and technologies required for remediation. Saprotrophic fungi, isolated from contaminated sites, hold promise for their bioremediation potential toward toxic organic compounds, since they might provide an environment-friendly solution to contamination. Once we verified the high tolerance of autochthonous fungal strains to high concentrations of DDT, we showed how fungi from different phyla demonstrate a high metabolic versatility in the presence of DDT. The isolates showed the singular ability to keep their functionality, despite the DDT-induced production of reactive oxygen species.

Fungi cover a range of important ecological functions associated with nutrient and carbon cycling in leaf litter and soil. As a result, research on existing relationships between fungal functional diversity, decomposition rates and competition is of key interest. Indeed, availability of nutrients in soil is largely the consequence of organic matter degradation dynamics. The Biolog® Phenotype MicroArrays™ (PM) system allows for the testing of fungi against many different carbon sources at any one time. The use and potential of the PM system as a tool for studying niche overlap and catabolic versatility of saprotrophic fungi is discussed here, and examples of its application are provided.

The saprotrophic fungus Penicillium griseofulvum was chosen as model organism to study responses to a mixture of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers (α-HCH, β-HCH, γ-HCH, δ-HCH) and potentially toxic metals (vanadium, lead) in solid and liquid media. The P. griseofulvum FBL 500 strain was isolated from polluted soil containing high concentrations of HCH isomers and potentially toxic elements (Pb, V). Experiments were performed in order to analyse the tolerance/resistance of this fungus to xenobiotics and to shed further light on fungal potential in inorganic and organic biotransformations. The aim was to examine the ecological and bioremedial potential of this fungus verifying the presence of mechanisms that allow it to transform HCH isomers and metals under different extreme test conditions. To our knowledge, this work is the first to provide evidence on the biotransformation of HCH mixtures, in combination with toxic metals, by a saprotrophic non-white-rot fungus and on the metabolic synergies involved.

The metabolic efficiency of different microbial groups in carbon source uses and single species storage efficiency is poorly characterised and not adequately represented in most biogeochemical models. It is proposed here a simple approach for an estimation of the metabolic quotient of fungal isolates. The method is based on the values of substrate use (respiration) and growth (biomass production) obtainable for single fungal isolates in vitro using the Phenotype MicroArray™ system to test the metabolic performance of fungi on different substrates. As a case study, this carbon-use efficiency method was used to compare a group of leaf litter fungi. The metabolic efforts of single fungal species were measured on 95 different substrates of different complexity. The respiration to biomass ratio showed a high reliability and the possibility of being used as a measurable property of the micro-organisms and an indicator of organism’s performance or fitness.

A trapping system was set up to isolate culturable cellulolytic fungi at the soil-leaf litter interface in an area of Mediterranean maquis located in southern Italy. Seven cellulolytic taxa were isolated and cultured to represent the pioneers in the primordial phase of cellulose colonisation. The functional diversity of fungal isolates was analysed using a phenotype microarray technique to generate a profile of their functional traits. The extent of the overlap in substrate utilisation by the various species was subsequently determined. Some of the species that acted as key cellulose decomposers are considered globally distributed air-borne contaminants. Most of the cellulolytic species that were isolated during the experiment are also well known for their competitive abilities. Our study showed that at an early stage of cellulose colonisation a few fungal species with potential overlap in the overall metabolic function were able to establish themselves. The species that prevailed at the onset of cellulose colonisation did not co-occur in the field sites. A sort of “founder effect” could be hypothesised for microfungi when colonising sterile cellulose. This would suggest that scale (i.e. the spatial component) exerts a strong influence on the causative mechanisms that link genetic fungal diversity to specific ecosystem functions.

The fungus Minimedusa polyspora (Hotson) Weresub & P.M. Le Clair was isolated during a survey aimed at collecting cellulolytic fungi from the soil–litter interface of the Mediterranean maquis environment in Italy. The metabolic profiling of the species and its ability to translocate nutrients between decaying leaf litter and soil have been investigated by means of Phenotype MicroArray™, Scanning Electron Microscopy and microanalysis techniques. The Phenotype MicroArray™ showed that the fungus possesses a preference for polysaccharides at the initial phases of its growth, and that it prefers hexoses and then oligosaccharides in the later phases of its development. M. polyspora proved to be capable of concentrating several important biogenic microelements (N, P, S, K and Ca), which are absent in the cellulosic substrate before fungal colonization. This capacity for nutrient uptake and translocation from other sources than cellulose makes this fungus a very efficient pioneer colonizer that requires little ni...

We evaluated the relationship between the potential activity shown by pure fungal isolates (in vitro) and their ecological role in the field. Fungal species frequency and occurrence during trophic succession on a natural resource were studied and used as a tool to gain a better understanding of the metabolic profiles obtained in vitro, thus permitting clarification of the role played by some of the key fungal species involved in the decomposition process within a Mediterranean natural ecosystem. Litter bags containing pure (homogeneous) and mixed leaves of low maquis plant species were incubated for one year in a field experiment. Functional diversity of a representative pool of fungal communities was analysed and compared using a “phenotype microarray” technique. Taking as its basis the screening of metabolic profiles using culturable isolates, this investigation showed that there was a high potentiality of functional redundancy between low, intermediate and high frequency taxa, and potential niche overlap during the different phases that occur during leaf litter decomposition. The early stages of decomposition appeared to be characterized by the presence of rare taxa (“Low” species), with a significantly higher functional potential, especially for sugar compounds. Conversely, the later phases of decomposition appeared to be characterized by species of intermediate frequency, while rare taxa at these stages seem to lose their dominant role. The importance of the different groups of substrates found across the decomposition phases also represented a key factor. For example, redundancy in the utilization of N-related compounds indicated a high potential for overlapping between species, especially in the early phases of the decomposition process, suggesting that the capacity for interspecific competition on some substrates can be considerable, particularly at the start of substrate exploitation.

We suggest a method to identify the suitability of a chosen indoor environment for paper material conservation in historical libraries. Our approach is based on two steps: numerical simulation for solving the air velocity, moisture and temperature fields, and then post-processing indexes evaluation to assess how the indoor microclimatic conditions can be favourable or not to the growth and development of microorganisms responsible for paper deterioration. A real case study was analysed in two different conditions: one the present situation and the other proposed by the authors with a HVAC system assuring controlled air temperature and RH levels. Numerical models, validated by experimental data published in previous works, were used to carry out microclimatic results. Starting from these results, some indexes suggested by the scientific literature were computed to check the suitability of the indoor environment for preserving a library heritage. Boolean parameters were also deduced from the combination of microclimatic factors favouring the growth of microorganisms responsible for paper material deterioration. Our research can provide a methodological approach that predictively allows one to know when, where and how the processes responsible for indoor microorganism activity can find the microclimatic conditions for their kick-off and triggering, and then their areas of potential growth. The proposed method highlights the main causes of the deterioration processes connected to building thermo-physics. Simulation results turned out to be a fundamental approach to identify the risky zones and potential areas of triggering deterioration processes of all the materials present.

Old-growth forests are key elements of ecosystem diversity and conservation strategies, providing niche differentiation and trophic pathways that produce structural and compositional heterogeneity. In these forests, deadwood is particularly important for saproxylic and mycorrhizal fungi, sustaining forest productivity and environmental services. In this study, the saproxylic fungal diversity in Mediterranean mountain forests, characterized by different management histories and forest types (holm oak and beech), was analyzed. The relationships between saproxylic fungal biodiversity and structural attributes were considered in three forest stands of the Apennines (Italy). In addition, descriptive environmental parameters and forest traits were related to prevailing fungal communities, in order to analyze the species composition and distribution patterns of saproxylic fungi resulting from the ordination processes. The study sites were selected on the basis of their late-serial stage of development. Species frequency was analyzed through multivariate techniques to test the relationships between fungi, structural attributes and environmental variables. A Detrended Correspondence Analysis (DCA) was used to investigate the response of the overall fungal community structure to environmental gradients. Living tree volume, altitude, vegetation type, and the frequency of species with ephemeral sporocarp lifespan played a crucial role in diversifying species distribution patterns. Deadwood volume and decay classes were related to taxonomic and trophic community diversity. However, differences between the considered climatic regions exerted a major role on the occurrence of fungi with ephemeral sporocarps more than deadwood abundance, utilized primarily as fructification substrate.

Two ochratoxin A (OTA)-producing Aspergillus isolates, recently collected from submerged riparian decomposing leaves in Italy, were found to have a similar morphology to Aspergillus cretensis (subgenus Circumdati, section Circumdati). However, marked differences emerged between these two novel isolates and A. cretensis as the former displayed different colony features and had larger vesicles, metulae, phialides and conidia, as well as a distinct sclerotial form and size. In order to determine the taxonomic status and to infer the evolutionary relationships of these two morphologically identical isolates, a molecular phylogenetic analysis was performed on all the officially recognized lineages in the section Circumdati. The DNA sequences and the deduced amino acid residues from the nuclear loci were analysed. Both rRNA and protein coding genes were assessed, which are widely used to differentiate taxa belonging to genus Aspergillus at various evolutionary levels. The 5.8S rDNA gene and internal transcribed spacers (ITS), the D1/D2 domains of the 28S rDNA gene, a region of the tubulin beta chain gene (benA) and part of the calmodulin gene (cmd) were amplified by PCR and then sequenced. The analysis of the rRNA regions and of the benA and cmd sequence data indicated that the two isogenic isolates belonged to a genetically distinct OTA-producing species of the genus Aspergillus. The isolates are proposed as representing a novel species, Aspergillus affinis sp. nov., with the type strain ATCC MYA-4773T ( = CBS 129190 = 417). Phylogenetically, A. affinis sp. nov. appeared to be very closely related to A. cretensis, from which it could be distinguished by means of a morphological trait analysis.

Current knowledge about Italian wood-decay fungi (Basidiomycota and Ascomycota) is surveyed: 1582 taxa belonging to Ascomycota (341) and Basidiomycota (1241) have been reported, including 23 species new to science of Basidiomycota described from Italy within the last five years. Evaluating diversity of wood-decay fungi can provide a more accurate estimation of species richness for fungi which are an important functional component of ecosystems. Aphyllophoroid and Ascomycota species play an important role in habitat conservation and management. Sardinia, Sicily, the Alps and the Apennines are “hot spots” for wood-decay Basidiomycota in Italy.

Soil fungal diversity plays a fundamental role in delivering key ecosystem goods and services. This article assesses diversity of saprobic soil and litter microfungi, as taxonomical and functional components which affect above- and below-ground relationships within Alpine and Mediterranean regions of Italy. We highlighted biodiversity high spots focusing on four research topics that have been developed over time and are currently in progress in Italy. Preliminary quantitative data concerning soil microfungi in the Raethian Alps showed a strong reduction of Colony Forming Unit (CFU)s with altitude. Keratinophilic microfungi in natural and anthropogenic environments were widespread among filamentous fungi and 121 species have been isolated in Italy since 1960. Heat stimulated microfungi in Mediterranean region soils showed high values both in abundance and species density even two years after the experimental fire, with Neosartorya spp. playing a pivotal role. The diversity of microfungi of Quercus...

In this work, we applied scanning electron microscopy (SEM), microanalysis and Raman spectroscopy to study the fungi inhabiting a richly illuminated parchment document and the damage induced by their activity. To that aim, we collected samples of fungal mycelium from the deteriorated areas on a removable adhesive tape specifically intended for lifting fungi without damaging the support. SEM analysis of the adhesive tape samples showed the co-occurrence of several species of fungi. One strain closely resembling Acremonium species was observed only in the tape micrographs but no agar cultures were obtained. Its fungal structures showed the production of abundant oxalates with an outstanding leaching of the calcium-based materials of parchment (typically manufactured with gypsum and lime). Needle-like crystals of calcium oxalate produced by the fungus forming a uniform and quite regular grid around conidial slimy heads were documented. As a result, the areas affected by moulds were weakened, stained and characterised by a powdery patina rich in calcium. Confocal μ-Raman confirmed the presence of oxalates while EDS showed the presence of calcium in crystals. We conclude that the defacement of the parchment was due to both collagenolytic activity, and to the biotransformation of calcium-based minerals by fungi.

Soil organic matter is a relevant carbon reservoir and CO2 sink in temperate grassland ecosystems and increased carbon uptake may mitigate climate change. Relatively little is known about the relationship between ecosystem function and soil fungal biodiversity in grasslands. However, this relationship is important because the saprotrophic microorganisms within the decomposer chain may, given their important role in the decomposition processes of litter and dead roots, control soil carbon storage. In this study, we provide the first empirical evidence of natural patterns of soil fungal biodiversity and soil carbon storage in Mediterranean grasslands at different elevations. We observed an asymptotic relationship between morphological and functional trait richness and fungal biodiversity. This relationship is consistent with the redundancy hypothesis of species diversity and ecosystem function. A limited number of fungal species is sufficient to attain morphological and functional variability in th...

β-Hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH) is a persistent organic pollutant (POP) of global concern with potentially toxic effects on humans and ecosystems. Fungal tolerance and biotransformation of toxic substances hold considerable promise in environmental remediation technologies as many fungi can tolerate extreme environmental conditions and possess efficient extracellular degradative enzymes with relatively non-specific activities. In this research, we have investigated the potential of a saprotrophic soil fungus, Penicillium griseofulvum Dierckx, isolated from soils with high concentrations of isomers of hexachlorocyclohexane, to biotransform β-HCH, the most recalcitrant isomer to microbial activity. The growth kinetics of the fungus were characterized after growth in stirred liquid Czapek-Dox medium. It was found that P. griseofulvum was able to grow in the presence of 1 mg L−1 β-HCH and in stressful nutritional conditions at different concentrations of sucrose in the medium (0 and 5 g L−1). The effects of β-HCH and the toluene, used as a solvent for β-HCH addition, on P. griseofulvum were investigated by means of a Phenotype MicroArray™ technique, which suggested the activation of certain metabolic pathways as a response to oxidative stress due to the presence of the xenobiotics. Gas chromatographic analysis of β-HCH concentration confirmed biodegradation of the isomer with a minimum value of β-HCH residual concentration of 18.6%. The formation of benzoic acid derivatives as dead-end products of β-HCH biotransformation was observed and this could arise from a possible biodegradation pathway for β-HCH with important connections to fungal secondary metabolism.

The authors conducted an ecological study of forests subjected to varying management. The aim of the study was to extend and integrate, within a multivariate context, knowledge of how saproxylic fungal communities behave along altitudinal/vegetational gradients in response to the varying features and quality of coarse woody debris (CWD). The intra-annual seasonal monitoring of saproxylic fungi, based on sporocarp inventories, was used to investigate saproxylic fungi in relation to vegetation types and management categories. We analyzed fungal species occurrence, recorded according to the presence/absence and frequency of sporocarps, on the basis of the harvest season, of coarse woody debris decay classes as well as other environmental and ecological variables. Two-way cluster analysis, DCA and Spearman's rank correlations, for indirect gradient analysis, were performed to identify any patterns of seasonality and decay. Most of the species were found on CWD in an intermediate decay stage. The first DCA axis revealed the vegetational/microclimate gradient as the main driver of fungal community composition, while the second axis corresponded to a strong gradient of CWD decay classes.

The aim of this paper is to describe a multidisciplinary approach including biological and particle monitoring, and microclimate analysis associated with the application of the Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD). This approach was applied at the Palatina historical library in Parma. Monitoring was performed both in July and in December, in the absence of visitors and operators. Air microbial monitoring was performed with active and passive methods. Airborne particles with a diameter of ≥0.3, ≥0.5, ≥1 and ≥5 μm/m3, were counted by a laser particle counter. The surface contamination of shelves and manuscripts was assessed with nitrocellulose membranes. A spore trap sampler was used to identify both viable and non-viable fungal spores by optical microscope. Microbiological contaminants were analyzed through cultural and molecular biology techniques. Microclimatic parameters were also recorded. An infrared thermal camera provided information on the surface temperature of the different building materials, objects and components. Transient simulation models, for coupled heat and mass-moisture transfer, taking into account archivist and general public movements, combined with the related sensible and latent heat released into the environment, were carried out applying the CFD-FE (Finite Elements) method. Simulations of particle tracing were carried out. A wide variability in environmental microbial contamination, both for air and surfaces, was observed. Cladosporium spp., Alternaria spp., Aspergillus spp., and Penicillium spp. were the most frequently found microfungi. Bacteria such as Streptomyces spp., Bacillus spp., Sphingomonas spp., and Pseudoclavibacter as well as unculturable colonies were characterized by molecular investigation. CFD simulation results obtained were consistent with the experimental data on microclimatic conditions. The tracing and distribution of particles showed the different slice planes of diffusion mostly influenced by the convective airflow. This interdisciplinary research represents a contribution towards the definition of standardized methods for assessing the biological and microclimatic quality of indoor cultural heritage environments.

Libraries and archives are keepers of expressions of human thought, from the most ancient documents written on papyrus, parchement, etc., to the new photographic and electronic supports. These materials of vegetal, animal or synthetic origin are subject to deterioration by physical agents (light, heat, humidity), chemical agents (atmospheric pollution),and biological agents (bacteria, microfungi and insects). Micro-organisms, agents of biodeterioration, as it is known, can be carried by airborne particles which can eventually settle in the dust. This paper shows the results of a preliminary quantitative and qualitative study made on potentially deteriogenic airborne fungal spores present in the dust deposited on shelves and documents of an archive's repository. The hygrothermometric parameters and the water content of the materials were also measured. The dust samples were collected with Swab Millipore samplers, using electrostatic attraction. This kind of sampler, originally destined for the microbiological analysis of water and, in extension, used to isolate bacteria from the book-material, was successfully also used in this case of dust sampling. Compared with the data resulting from the bibliography on dust, the use of Swabs allowed the spores present in the dust on books and shelves to be isolated.

The present paper reports the results of a bacteriological and mycological monitoring carried out on the airborne microflora of the Sistine Chapel. The general aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of the flow of visitors, as well seasonal effects, on the qualitative and quantitative variations of microorganisms. Two sampling campaigns were carried out in May and November 1997. A Surface Air System (SAS) sampler (active system) and a sedimentation based sampler (passive system), supported by an original plinth, were used. Temperature, humidity and carbon dioxide were detected. VITEK SYSTEMS jr. for Staphylococcus spp. and microscopic observation for microfungi were the identification methods. In spite of the conditioning and filtration air system, initial results with both samplers, show a positive correlation between the airborne microorganisms and presence and number of visitors. The SAS samples showed higher microbial load, for both bacteria and fungi, than the passive ones, but the epidemiological meaning of the differently collected data varies. The increase during visiting hours of human Staphylococcus spp. is stronger than the airborne bacterial load increase. The microfungi most frequently isolated were Cladosporium spp. and Penicillium spp. These preliminary data underline the significance of the survey for the protection of such a precious environment, and encourage the Authors to continue the ongoing monitoring.

The role of biota in the mass loss of Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud was studied in the littoral belt of a central Italy volcanic lake. The research focussed on the feeding interactions between detritivores and decomposing fungi as drivers of the leaf litter decomposition. The litterbag technique was used to assess the leaf mass loss, the number of colonizing fungi and the patterns of leaf colonization by detritivores during 40 days of submersion in 16 sampling sites. Cores of bottom sediment were collected to estimate the organic content and ergosterol concentration as measure of fungal mass. The rate of leaf mass loss showed significant variability among the sampling sites and was non-linearly related to the quantity of organic depositions onto the lake bottom, peaking at about 40% of the dry matter. The rate was also positively correlated with the density of detritivore mass relative to the leaf unit mass, which increased with time. On the 20th day of litterbag immersion, when 40% of the initial leaf litter remained, we observed the best accordance between the two measures as well as the lowest difference in the detritivore mass density among sampling sites. In the absence of animals, the decomposition rate was positively related to the number of fungi on the decaying litter. The feeding activity of detritivores changed both the species richness and composition of the fungal community on the litter. The substrate reduction due to intense animal feeding appeared to limit the ability of fungi to regrow after grazing. As a result, an inverse relationship between the number of fungi and the decomposition rate was observed.

Monospecific and mixed-leaf litters from plant species of Mediterranean maquis (Quercus ilex, Phillyrea angustifolia, Pistacia lentiscus, Cistus spp.) in an undisturbed area in southern Italy were studied with respect to the structure and composition of their decomposer fungal community over an incubation period of 403 d. The data matrix structure was analyzed by means of detrended correspondence analysis (DCA), while indicator species analysis (ISA) was used to determine the preferential association of species with a substrate, a succession phase and monospecific/mixed experimental conditions. The ecological nature of the gradient expressed by the DCA axes was investigated by means of experimental and main chemical leaf-litter variables. The litter mixture had non-additive effects on the decomposition process even though the fungal species richness of the mixed litter was considerably higher than that of the monospecific litter. Our findings highlight the occurrence of shifts in the fungal community during decomposition in response to changes in the substrate, such as those related to the cellulose content and lignin/N ratio.

In a Mediterranean area of Southern Italy, affected by low- and high-severity experimental fires, burned and unburned soils were analysed, at 245, 364 and 728 days after fire, for total and active fungal mycelium mass, abundance, species density and species composition of total, xerotolerant and heat-stimulated culturable fungi, oribatid mites and springtails. Principal Component Analysis was used to compare species composition of fungal community and faunal groups in burned and unburned plots. Independently of severity, fire generally caused a decrease in fungal mass, an increase in culturable total, xerotolerant and heat-stimulated fungi abundance (CFU), and minor changes in fungal species density. In parallel, fire induced a reduction in abundance and species density of studied faunal groups, generally correlated with fungal changes, and was consistently associated with the appearance of fungal and faunal species not present in control. Moreover, qualitative and quantitative changes in fungal community and faunal groups were recorded in association with sampling time. The results also suggested that the mosaic of burned and unburned areas, typical of a Mediterranean maquis affected by fire, could promote biodiversity in soil by favouring the contemporary presence of species typical of disturbed and undisturbed areas.

Experimental fires, of both low and high intensity, were lit during summer 2000 and the following 2 y in the Castel Volturno Nature Reserve, southern Italy. Soil samples were collected Jul 2000- Jul 2002 to analyze the soil fungal community dynamics. Species abundance distribution patterns (geometric, logarithmic, log normal, broken-stick) were compared. We plotted datasets with information both on species richness and abundance for total, xerotolerant and heat-stimulated soil microfungi. The xerotolerant fungi conformed to a broken-stick model for both the low- and high intensity fires at 7 and 84 d after the fire; their distribution subsequently followed logarithmic models in the 2 y following the fire. The distribution of the heat-stimulated fungi changed from broken-stick to logarithmic models and eventually to a log-normal model during the post-fire recovery. Xerotolerant and, to a far greater extent, heat-stimulated soil fungi acquire an important functional role following soil water stress and/or fire disturbance; these disturbances let them occupy unsaturated habitats and become increasingly abun- dant over time.

Fungi are organisms of significant importance not only for the crucial roles they undertake in nature but also for many human activities that are strictly dependent on them. Indeed, fungi possess fundamental positions in ecosystems functioning including nutrient cycles and wood decomposition. As concerns human-related activities, edible and non-edible mushrooms are also involved and/or exploited in forestry, pharmaceutical industry and food production; hence, nowadays they represent a major economic source worldwide. In order to maintain and improve their strategic importance, several conservation strategies, such as habitat preservation, are needed. This article reports several contributions inherent to the relationships between wood-decaying fungi, edible and non-edible mushrooms and their potential exploitation as non-timber forest products and genetic resources.

A wide range of cold environments exist, with an equally broad variety of fungi and yeasts that have adapted to such environments. These adaptations, which affect membranes, enzymes and other cellular components, such as radical scavenging molecules, display a great potential for exploitation in biotechnology. Alterations have been detected in membrane lipids, with an increase in fatty acid unsaturated bonds that enhance their fluidity. We report new data on the different phospholipid composition in membrane lipids in the same fungal species from both Antarctic and temperate regions. The decrease in temperature causes intracellular oxidative stress by inducing the generation of reactive oxygen species. We report the results of the first analysis of the non-enzymatic antioxidant response and phenolic compound production by an Antarctic strain of Geomyces pannorum. A survey on yeasts from the cryosphere is reported with a focus on their adaptation to a cold environment. Some studies have shown that the numb...

This study was performed to characterize and quantify mould and yeast isolates in fresh vegetables (FV) and ready to eat salads (RTES). During 2007, a random set of 194 samples, including 56 samples of FV and 138 samples of RTES, were analyzed for a total of 388 mycological determinations. Yeasts and moulds identification was carried out on 18/56 whole FV and 42/138 RTES. Yeasts were the predominant organisms in the FV (mean values: 6.20 log cfu g-1-8.00 log cfu g-) while moulds showed lower mean values (4.70 log cfu g-l-6.79 log cfu g-l). After processing, FV samples showed a statistically significant decreases (p-value0.001) in the contamination of fungi. Most of the species identified were found both in the FV and RTES samples. Many of moulds species isolated belong to toxigenic genera Penicillium, Stachybotrys, Phoma, Fusarium indicating a potential mycotoxin production and a potential risk for consumers.

The aim of this work was to test the growth response of some selected species to toxic metal vanadium, chosen among those isolated from contaminated agricultural soils (organochlorines, potentially toxic elements) in the “ Valle Latina ” (Lazio, Italy). This area contains high levels of potentially toxic elements due both to human activities and the presence of volcanic rocks (pyroclastic deposits). In particular, vanadium levels exceed the threshold values established by Italian legislation. The soil fungal community was found to be rich in species and we tested the growth responses of six selected species of saprotrophic fungi ( Aspergillus terreus , Cladosporium cladosporioides , Clonostachys rosea , Paecilomyces lilacinus , Penicillum citrinum , Rhizopus arrhizus ). Culture medium (MEA) was amended with ammonium vanadate at concentrations of 1, 2, 3 and 6 mM. Results were based on growth measurements, the tolerance index (TI), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersion X-ray microanalysis (EDXA) and the metal concentration in the biomass determined by means of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Results revealed a tolerance to vanadium for all the fungi tested at concentrations of up to 6 mM. Tolerance of soil fungi to high natural metal concentrations might be the key factor underlying their tolerance to anthropogenic contamination.

Aspergillus implicatus sp. nov. is described from tropical forest soil in Tai National Park (Ivory Coast). The species shows an affinity with species of Section Candidi and is characterized by the peculiar presence of parallel sterile hyphae surrounding the conidiophore.

The kingdom Fungi comprises one of the most diverse groups of living organisms. They are numerous, ubiquitous and undertake many roles both independently and in association with other organisms. Fungi display a wide diversity of forms also mirrored by functional diversity and play such a dominant role in human society that they are arguably biotechnologically the most important group of organisms. Ex situ conservation of fungi, not only guarantees correct management and conservation of biodiversity, but also its exploitation in different fields. This article describes the major biological resource centres dealing with fungi in Italy and gives several examples of fungal exploitation in different fields of applications.

The fundamental ecological significance of deadwood decomposition in forests has been highlighted in several reviews, some conclusions regarding silviculture being drawn. Old‐growth forests are natural centres of biodiversity. Saproxylic fungi and beetles, which are vital components of these ecosystems, occupy a variety of spatial and trophic niches. Fungal and beetle diversity on coarse woody debris (CWD) was analysed in 36 forest sites in the Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park, Italy. The data were analysed by DCA and Spearman’s rank correlation. The results provide empirical evidence of the existence of a pattern of joint colonization of the woody substrate by fungi and beetles, which includes an assemblage of reciprocal trophic roles within fungal/beetle communities. These organisms act together to form a dynamic taxonomical and functional ecosystem component within the complex set of processes involved in wood decay. The variables most predictive of correlations between management‐rela...

In July 2000, six plots of Mediterranean maquis in the Castel Volturno Nature Reserve were burnt at two intensity levels to examine the effects of fire intensities on chemical and biological soil components and their relationships with ecophysiological processes of Phillyrea angustifolia L. Net photosynthesis and stomatal conductance, as well as P availability, were higher in burnt plots than in control plots, even 2 years after fire; the TM density of total soil microfungi was significantly lower in the first 8 months after fire, while xerotolerant and heat-stimulated soil microfungi were still higher 2 years after fire. Significant correlations between photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in resprouts and mycorrhizal status, as well as changes in the soil fungal components of the communities, suggest that both soil and mycorrhizal fungi play a role in immobilizing and translocating nutrients temporarily released in the below-ground system by fire. Nutrient balance interacts with physiological processes, and a feedback mechanism is well represented by stomatal conductance, which allows both the influx of water and mineral nutrients from the soil; moreover, the post-fire increase in photosynthetic activity promotes vigorous resprouting and may lead to increased availability of carbohydrates for soil biota and, consequently, to enhanced vegetation resilience.

The fungal communities of grassland soils in Spain from four sites at different elevations were studied. Each site contained grazed and fenced ungrazed plots. These plots were situated in two slope positions (upper and lower zones). The ungrazed plots, fenced off 6 y before the sampling, were part of a study of global change that simulates conditions of rural abandonment, which is widespread in Iberian countries, since Spain joined the European Union. We analyzed the structure of the soil fungi communities and its relationship with herbaceous vegetation. The distribution of 207 taxa of fungi revealed that the elevation was the main factor of fungal variability; the effect of grazing and slope position were associated with less variability. Although a halt in grazing resulted in the accumulation of standing plants and plant litter in these ecosystems, it had relatively little effect on soil microfungi and appeared to be related mainly to growing conditions affected by that accumulation.

The effect of experimental fires on fungi and fungivorous microarthropods was investigated in a coastal area of southern Italy. In particular, in burned soils affected by different severity fires (low and high) the following parameters were determined at 245 (March 2001), 364 (July 2001) and 728 (July 2002) days after fire: total and active fungal mycelium, abundance and species density of total, xerotolerant and heatstimulated fungi as well as abundance and species density of oribatid mites and springtails, which are the main groups of mesofauna. Fungal mycelium decreased in burned soils, compared to unburned soils, during the whole study period (active mycelium) or only at 728 days after fire (total mycelium), with significant effect of fire severity only at 245 days after fire. Similarly, species density of total mycobiota tend to be reduced in burned soils; by contrast, total mycobiota abundance increased in burned soils, reflecting the increase in abundance of xerotolerant and heat-stimulated fungi. To some extent total fungal decrease could be responsible for reduction in abundance and species density of oribatid mites and springtails often occurred in this study (with the exception for July 2002), particularly in soils affected by high-severity fire. In fact, positive correlations between faunal and fungal parameters were often observed. However, the effect of other factors on soil fauna cannot be excluded. A clear temporal dynamics of considered biological parameters was generally evident, with the lowest values in the first summer after fire (July 2001), characterized by the lowest soil water content. In fact, positive correlations with soil water content were found for fungal mycelium and abundance as well as for springtail species density. Different organism groups showed the highest abundance and species density in different times (at March 2001 or July 2002). Data suggest that changes due to fire together with seasonal variation of climatic factors (probably emphasized by fire) raise the survival probability of several species, also providing temporary refuges to species (such as heat-stimulated fungi) that are unable to compete in undisturbed soils, so that different groups were favoured in different microhabitats and/or in different times.

Any artefact is influenced by the surrounding environment, in terms of stress produced by physical factors such as temperature, light irradiation and humidity, and, in a more general sense, by the microclimate resulting from the synergy of all these factors (Stainer et al, 1984; Fea, 1988; Monteith, 1990; Camuffo et al., 2001). The action of the climate is continuous, and its effects usually appear in the long run, since they are caused by the succession of the characteristic stages of the system, such as the alternation of night and day and the sequence of the seasons. These changes may produce direct actions due to thermal, radiative and hygrometrie stress on the surface, both through the simple phenomena of evaporation and condensation, and through more complex physical and chemical phenomena, such as the activation of chemical reactions due to incident radiation or to the availability of condensation water. On the one hand, the continuous action of the local microclimate produces a deterioration in the long run, but on the other hand, a sudden change in the local microclimate (changes in rainfall, in the wind regime, or in the maximum and minimum temperatures) produces effects on a shorter time scale. Another factor that is fundamental for the intensity of the interaction is the position of the artefact, whether it be out of doors, indoors or underground.

Before dealing with the specific problems of aerobiological monitoring, it is necessary to explain how the biological component of air may be a potential cause of degradation in cultural artefacts.

The techniques currently available for the identification of biological aerosol can be divided into five categories: cultural techniques; direct counting through a microscope; rapid biochemical methods; immunological methods; molecular biology methods.

The air of indoor and outdoor environments contains a great number of particles in suspension, having various origins, shapes and sizes. These particles form the atmospheric aerosol (Table 5.1). The criterion for classifying the particles may vary, depending on the purpose of the work: they may be classified on the basis of their nature (biological, organic, inorganic), of their location (marine, continental, rural, industrial, urban), and of the effects (chemical, toxic, pathogenic, of degradation) that they produce on their deposition surfaces, which may be either materials or living systems. Among the particles of biological origin, a distinction is generally made between viable ones, which are able to reproduce or stimulate biological processes, and non viable ones or their fragments. The term microorganisms is used in this chapter to indicate viruses, bacteria, algae, protozoa, fungi (yeasts and moulds), spores etc.. Spores may be clusters or single particles originated from fungal fruiting bodies, or resistant forms produced by some bacteria. To these microorganisms we may add the spores of Bryophyta and Pteridophyta, lichen propagules, algal cells, pollen grains and Protozoa cysts. These are often found aggregated or included in other liquid or solid particles.