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According to traditional ideas about the formation of the Solar System starting from a protoplanetary disk of gas and dust, a well-defined distribution of planets and minor bodies is expected: (a) volatile-poor rocky bodies (terrestrial planets and asteroids) in the inner part of the Solar System and (b) volatile-rich objects (gaseous giant planets, comets, Centaurs, and trans-Neptunian objects) in the outer part. All these bodies are expected to orbit near a plane (the ecliptic) coinciding with that of the protoplanetary disk. However, in the modern Solar System many bodies are present that do not respect this simplistic expectation. First of all, there are the so-called Main Belt Comets, apparently asteroidal objects that show an activity similar to that of comets. In addition, there is an object (and several others very probably exist), which, despite its S-type spectrum characteristic of rocky bodies, is found on a cometary orbit. Finally, there are many asteroids on very inclined orbits with respect to the ecliptic. These very interesting groups of objects, which, according to the traditional point of view, could be collectively seen as some sort of “interlopers” of the Solar System, will be discussed in this review, which offers descriptions of their properties and their likely origin. In this respect, the possibility is discussed that many active asteroids (such as those belonging to the Taurid Complex) are the result of the fragmentation of large comets that occurred in the relatively recent past.

The upper atmosphere of a planet is a transition region in which energy is transferred between the deeper atmosphere and outer space. Molecular emissions from the upper atmosphere (90– 120km altitude) of Venus can be used to investigate the energetics and to trace the circulation of this hitherto little-studied region. Previous spacecraft1 and ground-based2–4 observations of infrared emission from CO2, O2 and NO have established that photochemical and dynamic activity controls the structure of the upper atmosphere of Venus. These data, however, have left unresolved the precise altitude of the emission1 owing to a lack of data and of an adequate observing geometry5,6. Here we report measurements of day-side CO2 non-local thermodynamic equilibrium emission at 4.3 mm, extending from 90 to 120 km altitude, and of night-side O2 emission extending from 95 to 100 km. The CO2 emission peak occurs at 115 km and varies with solar zenith angle over a range of 10 km. This confirms previous modelling7, and permits the beginning of a systematic study of the variability of the emission. The O2 peak emission happens at 96km61 km, which is consistent with three-body recombination of oxygen atoms transported from the day side by a global thermospheric sub-solar to anti-solar circulation, as previously predicted8

The Visible and Infrared Thermal Imaging Spectrometer (VIRTIS) on board the ESA/Venus Express mission has technical specifications well suited for many science objectives of Venus exploration. VIRTIS will both comprehensively explore a plethora of atmospheric properties and processes and map optical properties of the surface through its three channels, VIRTIS-M-vis (imaging spectrometer in the 0.3–1 micron range), VIRTIS-M-IR (imaging spectrometer in the 1–5 micron range) and VIRTIS-H (aperture highresolution spectrometer in the 2–5 micron range). The atmospheric composition below the clouds will be repeatedly measured in the night side infrared windows over a wide range of latitudes and longitudes, thereby providing information on Venus’s chemical cycles. In particular, CO, H2O, OCS and SO2 can be studied. The cloud structure will be repeatedly mapped from the brightness contrasts in the near-infrared night side windows, providing new insights into Venusian meteorology. The global circulation and local dynamics of Venus will be extensively studied from infrared and visible spectral images. The thermal structure above the clouds will be retrieved in the night side using the 4.3 micron fundamental band of CO2. The surface of Venus is detectable in the short-wave infrared windows on the night side at 1.01, 1.10 and 1.18 micron, providing constraints on surface properties and the extent of active volcanism. Many more tentative studies are also possible, such as lightning detection, the composition of volcanic emissions, and mesospheric wave propagation.

Because it is possible that Mars experienced an ancient climate warmer and wetter than the present one, it is reasonable to suppose that simple forms of life developed there, in the underground or at the surface, as in the terrestrial primitive biosphere. In this work we have performed infrared (IR) transmission spectroscopic analyses directed to examine the reaction to heat treatments of biotic (fresh and fossil materials) and abiotic particulate samples composed of calcium carbonate (aragonite or calcite). The aim is to check if IR spectroscopy can be a useful tool for discriminating between abiotic and biotic (fossil) carbonate samples collected on the martian surface, during in situ or sample-return missions. An important result we found is that, after thermal processing, it is possible to distinguish, by means of IR spectroscopy, abiotic aragonite from aragonite of recent biological origin. In addition we have found that the spectral behaviour of all the analysed fossil samples after heat treatment is the same as that of fresh biotic material irrespective of the original structure (whether aragonite or calcite).

Venus has no seasons, slow rotation and a very massive atmosphere, which is mainly carbon dioxide with clouds primarily of sulphuric acid droplets. Infrared observations by previous missions to Venus revealed a bright ‘dipole’ feature surrounded by a cold ‘collar’ at its north pole. The polar dipole is a ‘double-eye’ feature at the centre of a vast vortex that rotates around the pole, and is possibly associated with rapid downwelling. The polar cold collar is a wide, shallow river of cold air that circulates around the polar vortex. One outstanding question has been whether the global circulation was symmetric, such that a dipole feature existed at the south pole. Here we report observations of Venus’ south-polar region, where we have seen clouds with morphology much like those around the north pole, but rotating somewhat faster than the northern dipole. The vortex may extend down to the lower cloud layers that lie at about 50km height and perhaps deeper. The spectroscopic properties of the clouds around the south pole are compatible with a sulphuric acid composition.