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58 I Ibid. i 59 I Ibid. i 60 I Ibid. i 61 I Ibid. i 62 I Ibid. i 63 General Services Administration, "Art in Architecture Program", https://www.gsa.gov/real-estate/design-construction/art-in-architecture-fine-arts/art-in-architecture-program 64 I Ibid. i ; Central Intelligence Agency, "Art-in-Architecture Program", https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP87-01130R000100090007-4.pdf 65 I Ibid. i 66 I Ibid. i 67 Central Intelligence Agency, "Art for the New Building", 19 February 1988, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP90M01364R000700120021-5.pdf 68 I Ibid. i 69 I Ibid. i 70 Central Intelligence Agency, "Art for the New Building", 1987, https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP89G00643R000800150014-8.pdf 71 Central Intelligence Agency, "Art for the New Building", 19 February 1988. 72 Central Intelligence Agency, "Intelligence Museum", https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/CIA-RDP85-00988R000400030003-3.pdf 73 Central Intelligence Agency, "About CIA: CIA Museum", November 1, 2018, https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum 74 I Ibid. i 75 National Security Agency, Center for Cryptologic History, https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/center-cryptologic-history/ 76 Federal Bureau of Investigation, "The FBI Experience", https://www.fbi.gov/contact-us/fbi-headquarters/the-fbi-experience 77 Central Intelligence Agency, "About CIA: CIA Museum." While the CIA (the primary U.S. foreign intelligence service) and the NSA (the country's primary SIGINT service) take slightly different, but equally serious, approaches to the resource of accumulated knowledge, the FBI - an agency older than both the CIA and the NSA - has literally outsourced its legacy. [Extracted from the article]

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Through shifts in scale, as illustrated in creative spatial practices, affinities can be drawn out between persons and architectures that lead to encounters with forms and materials as both familiar and strange. Such encounters hold potential for developing sensitivity to the forces at play between body and surroundings, and the identification of separate bodies can be shifted to identification with, and as part of, an ecology of bodies. Using examples from artist-architects Shusaku Arakawa and Madeline Gins alongside art historical examples of Minimalist sculpture, lines of connection are drawn between disparate practices in order to illustrate a continuity of questioning the body directly through the construction of environments. These spatial practices evidence that certain questions are best posed by architecture, as questions which cannot be posed through language can be posed through other methods. Strategies for increasing this sensitivity are parsed out towards the identification of a particular form of embodied doubt, a lived puzzlement felt body wide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

European policies recommend holistic approaches based on interdisciplinary teams when tackling the urban regeneration of residential buildings. This research presents the experience and findings of a collaborative research project between the disciplines of architecture and environmental psychology conducted in the Barrio das Estacas district of Lisbon, which has a significant elderly population. The experience combined a technical diagnosis of the public space and residential buildings together with a diagnosis of the psychosocial variables of its residents, obtained by means of surveys, enabling the development of effective action proposals that promote 'ageing at home'. The research seeks to highlight the true value of characterizing the resident population and analysing their needs and demands for the purposes of urban regeneration through consultation processes, integrating the interdisciplinary perspective in the design of efficient intervention protocols for society. The results show that the residents are satisfied with their residential environment but have noted significant technical contraventions, requirements and demands for work that would improve their safety, health and comfort. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Daylighting, a controlled architectural tool that influences users' perception and behavior, in university libraries and their influences on users' preference and satisfaction was examined in this study. The effects of daylighting in coordination with visual comfort, on university library users were measured in relation to four environmental processes, namely privacy, personal space, territoriality, and crowding. It was found that daylight and four environmental processes are related. It is believed that the consideration of this relationship will encourage students to use their libraries fully as an essential component of university education and campus life. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This article reports the findings of an investigation into the atmosphere in stadiums during live team sports. Experiencing this special atmosphere represents an essential part of the total service provided by the organizers of sport events. However, existing research into the concept of atmosphere focuses on the retail environment. Our first step was therefore to define sport stadium atmosphere as a theoretical construct, drawing on theories from environmental psychology. We then developed a mimic (multiple indicator-multiple cause) model to measure the construct. To specify the mimic model, we generated and selected formative measures by means of a delphi study (N = 20), qualitative expert interviews (N = 44), and an indicator sort task (N = 34). The results indicate that various physical and social aspects of the stadium environment are causal indicators of sport stadium atmosphere. Following this, we conducted phenomenological interviews with spectators at sport events (N = 5) to identify typical affective responses to stadium environment (representing the reflective indicators of the mimic model). These interviews revealed that fans' experience of stadium environment is characterized by high levels of arousal and pleasure. In addition to our findings, the mimic model developed in this study represents a useful tool for future research into sport stadium atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

International migration in the recent decades brought about multicultural societies almost everywhere. It seems that in such societies, two main approaches 1 been considered particularly in regard with the designing of the residential places. The first is to design neighborhoods related to the isolated nationalities, and the second is designing neighborhoods for the mixed ones. Taking a qualitative content analysis research approach, the article focuses on the second approach and will show how architecture may psychologically contribute to the integrative acculturation and enhance intergroup relations in different aspects. It also approaches new typologies of urbane grains; The author has pursued the goals through putting the theoretical frameworks into a design experience among 37 bachelor students of architecture in Eyvanekey higher education institute and comes to the conclusion that a specific spatial arrangement of architectural functions in terms of new building typologies (e.g., high-rises) with mixed functions could in different ways contribute to the social and cultural integration of the migrants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Around 2 million pilgrims attend the annual Hajj to Mecca and the holy places, which are subject to dense crowding. Both architecture and psychology can be part of disaster risk reduction in relation to crowding, since both can affect the nature of collective behaviour-particularly cooperation- among pilgrims. To date, collective behaviour at the Hajj has not been systematically investigated from a psychological perspective. We examined determinants of cooperation in the Grand Mosque and plaza during the pilgrimage. A questionnaire survey of 1194 pilgrims found that the Mosque was perceived by pilgrims as one of the most crowded ritual locations. Being in the plaza (compared with the Mosque) predicted the extent of cooperation, though crowd density did not. Shared social identity with the crowd explained more of the variance than both location and density. We examined some of the process underlying cooperation. The link between shared social identity and giving support to others was stronger in the plaza than in the Mosque, and suggests the role of place and space in modulating processes of cooperation in crowds. These findings have implications for disaster risk reduction and for applications such as computer simulations of crowds in pilgrimage locations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract. Perceptions of architecture vary depending on the reader. This study is based on an experiment involving social media. A provocative architectural photomontage is shared on Facebook without using the sponsored feature. Inputs, notably 'Likes' and 'Comments', received within 24 hours from posting were analysed. Unlike respondents who are involved in architecture, the general public is afraid of innovative design, departing from the prescriptive formal and informal norms, the comfort zone. The emphasis of the public is the utilitarian rather than the aesthetic dimension of architecture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article considers how the perceptions of health care architecture and the health care Architect have changed over the past 90 years. Four case studies (Alvar Aalto's Paimio Sanatorium, Finland; Peter Womersley's Nuffield Transplantation Unit, Scotland; and two outpatient cancer treatment centres by EwingCole for Memorial Sloan- Kettering, USA), distributed between 1928 and 2014, are used to explore the shifting status of architecture in the medical setting. The twentieth century was a period of rapid medical advancement; improvements in life expectancy and treatments for previously incurable conditions progressed faster than ever before. During this time, health facilities became ever more crowded with medical technologies, which swiftly outstripped architecture in perceived value and importance in the healing process. Today the tides are turning for the weight given to architecture in health care settings; however, acknowledgement of the physical and psychological impact of architecture on the human body is yet to permeate all sectors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paying attention to psychological aspect of human being along with meeting his physical needs are among the factors that have found their special place in different sciences such as architectural design. Appropriate design of interior space and facade of spaces will lead to stimulation of positive feelings. However, architects consider it with their personal tendencies and tastes. The aim of the present study is to assess and extract user’s emotions about facade openings of Maskan (Housing) Bank in the city of Sari, Iran. Investigations were conducted through the Kansei engineering method to calculate and obtain the user’s feeling accurately. Questionnaires were set for 200 statistical samples through the semantic differential (SD) method with a 7-point Likert scale. The responses were analyzed in the SPSS software with a mean test, standard deviation, independent sample T-test, one-way ANOVA and Pearson correlation. Findings indicate that participant’s background characteristics such as gender, age, temperament, blood group, education and work had effects on users’ emotions. This research also approves a significant relation between design quantitative (type of openings) and qualitative (Kansei words) characteristics in the Kansei engineering technique. The emotion of most of the participants toward picture 2 (triangular openings) was assessed inappropriate. The arched openings in the traits related to religion in words such as loyal, trustee, and moderate with a correlation of 0.6, 0.63, and 0.6, respectively; and rectangular openings with vertical extension in traits related to finance and banking in words such as stability with the correlation of 0.62 had the maximum significant relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Una entrevista con el arquitecto Emilio Tuñón es presentado. Él discute varios temas incluyendo expresiones gráficas en arquitectura, diseño arquitectónico, dibujo arquitectónico en la infancia, la auto-expresión en el dibujo, el uso del dibujo como idioma, aspectos mentales del dibujo y comunicativo de la expresión de la arquitectura.

A burgeoning interest in the intersection of neuroscience and architecture promises to offer biologically inspired insights into the design of spaces. The goal of such interdisciplinary approaches to architecture is to motivate construction of environments that would contribute to peoples' flourishing in behavior, health, and well-being. We suggest that this nascent field of neuroarchitecture is at a pivotal point in which neuroscience and architecture are poised to extend to a neuroscience of architecture. In such a research program, architectural experiences themselves are the target of neuroscientific inquiry. Here, we draw lessons from recent developments in neuroaesthetics to suggest how neuroarchitecture might mature into an experimental science. We review the extant literature and offer an initial framework from which to contextualize such research. Finally, we outline theoretical and technical challenges that lie ahead. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent social theory that stresses the ‘nonrepresentational’, the ‘more-than visual’, and the relationship between affect and sensation have tended to assume some kind of break or rupture from historical antecedents. Especially since the contributions of Crary and Jay in the 1990s, when it comes to perceiving the built environment the complexities of sensation have been partially obscured by the dominance of a static model of vision as the principal organizing modality. This article returns to some prior historical articulations of the significance of motility in perception, retracing pathways across art history, architectural theory and the history of neuroscience to argue for an alternative model based on the movement of the eye. Along with subsystems that deal with balance and orientation, I offer parallels between spatial motifs of the interior spaces of the body – labyrinths, vestibules, chambers – and those in artefacts and the built environment that contribute to the heightened physicality of the oculomotor subject. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is about the experience of seeing in psychoanalysis. It is a realm of sensation that has been minimized since Freud privileged hearing and the word over the image. I discuss Diana Fuss’ study of the architecture of the first psychoanalytic office and Debra Roth’s argument for restoring the value of the surface to have a flow between exterior and interior. I present the work of the philosopher, Merleau-Ponty, emphasizing seeing preceding language and the importance of the image for the psychoanalyst. Paying attention to what is seen in dreams, photography, and the psychoanalytic office may bring the analyst into a more vulnerable and fully realized mutual participation with the patient. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article focuses on the picture book "The Little House" by Virginia Lee Burton and its depiction by entertainment company Disney in animated films. It talks about the portrayal of how a simple country life is preferable to living in a city with the house itself being the heroine of the story. It mentions how Disney's film is darker and expressed social judgment not found in the book. It examines the house in the movie "Up" which resembled Burton's and its notion of architecture as resistance.

Background: The existence of the complexity in layout and physical parameters are still under investigation in urban architecture in cognitive science. Current research seems to pay more attention to wayfinding in two-dimensional environments investigating it in public buildings such as hospitals, airports or university departments, where it is more common to experience disorientation. Also, the presence of turning walks or staircases undermines the users' cognitive map. As a consequence, the sense of disorientation would depend on various factors such as the number of ramps, their location and orientation with respect to the building's main façade. Methods: We carry out two case studies: the first one is a qualitative experiment at the University of Bremen; the second one is a quantitative analysis at the Technical University of Bari. In both studies we select a random sample in which respondents perform a series of tests. . Participants are not familiar with the building in which the experiment is conducted but have some knowledge with the surrounding environment. Results: Main results suggest the importance of building layouts as an important element affecting human cognitive map in wayfinding. They seem to support the hypothesis that the direction of stairs plays an important role on the disorientation when navigating complex three-dimensional environments. Conclusions: This paper is an attempt to understand how the location of staircases affects disorientation and how this aspect, in turn, affects knowledge acquisition for wayfinding. These findings, coming from experimentations in indoor environments, seem to evoke a peculiar extension to outdoor environments, too. There is fair interest toward convenient investigation for outdoor integration and/or generalization. An intriguing future perspective for the present research would be the extension to the urban level of spatial cognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The notion of an ideal city is an ancient theme, a container of symbols of perfection and harmony that have considerable analogies with the Jungian archetypes and with the psychical symbolism of the individuation process. This article focuses on Buzzinda, an ideal city built during the 20th century by the Italian architect Tomaso Buzzi, who designed a richly symbolic journey unfolding across the buildings of the city. Following this path, we come across several symbols that have a universal psychological meaning, analogous to those conceptualized by Jung in relation to the process of individuation. Walking through the city becomes a way to physically encounter the archetypes and symbols present in the psyche and also demonstrates that the individuation process can be discerned autonomously by independent thinkers. The journey through Buzzinda becomes a way to meet these symbols and face the contents of the psyche, delving deeper into the unconscious, only to return enriched with a greater knowledge of ourselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this essay, I point to the ways in which American authors writing what were (arguably) some of the first American novels frequently include images of buildings being razed, pulled down, and otherwise demolished. Specifically, I argue that the houses at the heart of two early Revolutionary romances--James Fenimore Cooper's wildly popular The Spy: A Tale of the Neutral Ground (1821) and Lydia Maria Child's highly anticipated second novel, The Rebels; or, Boston before the Revolution (1825)--function as examples of European architecture and architectural-imaginary practices. These authors are responding to a desire for a unique American architectural archive that would, as Thomas Jefferson hoped, reflect the new nation's history and identity. Yet the design of these houses and their material afterlives frustrate a neat narrative of architectural national progression. Though these houses closely resemble their European cousins (English country houses and Enlightenment temples), their destruction does not signal a hopeful moment of constructing American national identity. Rather, the destruction of these homes registers a moment of deep pathos and trauma in both novels, and in the wake of their destruction, no architectural alternative appears to record the nation's history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article describes human-made structures that have ceased to exist as "architectural ghosts." Topics include the aesthetics of architecture in relation to imaginary buildings, the relation of ruins to architectural ghosts, and photography of buildings that no longer exist. Also addressed are the notion of the appreciation of buildings, the views of philosopher Jenefer Robinson on the role of emotions in human reactions to architecture, and the views of philosopher Immanuel Kant in his book "Critique of Judgment" in relation to the thought of philosopher Paul Guyer.

An understanding of spatial cognition or knowledge is key to architecture.Here Daniel R Montello, Professor of Geography and Affiliated Professor of Psychological & Brain Sciences at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), explains the significance of cognitive structures and processes for understanding, perceiving, imagining and designing architectural space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 'syntonic' in psychology refers to an emotional responsiveness to the environment. Here Guest-Editors Christian Derix and Åsmund Izaki explain how they developed syntonic systems that place an emphasis on the representation of the occupant-user during a guest-professorship at the Technical University of Munich (2012-13). This was explored as a means of enabling students to bridge the gap between the mutually exclusive specialisation of the architect as computer programmer and architect-designer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The celebrated architect, educator and author Juhani Pallasmaa is well-known for having forged a new understanding of perception and the experiential in architecture with his seminal book The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Sensory (3rd edn, Wiley, 2012). Here he describes how 'imagining human situations' is at the core of architecture, relying on the interrelationship of physical space, behaviour and the capacity for mental tuning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evolutionary psychology has provoked controversy, especially when applied to human sex differences. We hypothesize that this is partly due to misunderstandings of evolutionary psychology that are perpetuated by undergraduate sex and gender textbooks. As an initial test of this hypothesis, we develop a catalog of eight types of errors and document their occurrence in 15 widely used sex and gender textbooks. Consistent with our hypothesis, of the 12 textbooks that discussed evolutionary psychology, all contained at least one error, and the median number of errors was five. The most common types of errors were "Straw Man," "Biological Determinism," and "Species Selection." We conclude by suggesting improvements to undergraduate sex and gender textbooks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A critique is presented of the 18th century novel "Vathek" by William Beckford, focusing on the author's use of architectural forms to represent aspects of the caliph character Vathek's identity. Self-realization, omnipotence, and Vathek's desire to be respected by his subjects are discussed, as well as the design of his palaces. The political and psychological aspects of performance, Vathek's delusions, and the supernatural powers of the demon Giaour are also discussed.

As an architect with the London County Council (LCC), a newspaper columnist, friend of artists and an incipient collector, Colin St John Wilson is a fascinating figure in the interacting circles of 1950s London. It was Wilson’s sketch-plan that ordered the ‘market-stalls’ of the This is Tomorrow exhibition and – in the opinion of Theo Crosby – the display he created with architect Peter Carter, engineer Frank Newby and sculptor Robert Adams most closely achieved the exhibition’s original aim of an anonymous synthesis of the arts. In this article, the author interprets Wilson’s life, work and theory as both critique and commentary in an examination of three pertinent issues within the Independent Group: the possibilities of artistic collaboration in architecture; the creative tension in architecture between science/technology and art/humanism; and the potential for a deeper psychologising of space – linked to psychoanalytical debates of the time. Interrogating these concerns is of importance, the author proposes, as they were so central to the discourses and form-making of architecture both at the time and in the immediate futures of the 1960s, the 1970s and afterwards. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Prospect-refuge theory proposes that environments which offer both outlook and enclosure provoke not only feelings of safety but also of spatially derived pleasure. This theory, which was adopted in environmental psychology, led Hildebrand to argue for its relevance to architecture and interior design. Hildebrand added further spatial qualities to this theory -- including complexity and order -- as key measures of the environmental aesthetics of space. Since that time, prospect-refuge theory has been associated with a growing number &works by renowned architects, but so far there is only limited empirical evidence to substantiate the theory. This paper analyses and compares the methods used in 30 quantitative attempts to examine the validity of prospect--refuge theory. Its purpose is not to review the findings of these studies, but to examine their methodological bases and biases and comment on their relevance for future research in this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the middle of the twentieth century, banks changed from ‘closed’ designs signifying wealth, security, and safety to ‘open’ designs signifying hospitality, honesty, and transparency as the perception of money changed from a passive physical substance to be slowly accumulated to an active notational substance to be kept in motion. If money is saved, customers must trust that the bank is secure and their money will be there when they want it; if money is invested, customers must trust that it is being done openly and honestly and they are being well-advised. Architecture visually communicates that the institution can be trusted in the requisite way. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

On average, we urban dwellers spend about 90% of our time indoors, and share the intuition that the physical features of the places we live and work in influence how we feel and act. However, there is surprisingly little research on how architecture impacts behavior, much less on how it influences brain function. To begin closing this gap, we conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging study to examine how systematic variation in contour impacts aesthetic judgments and approach-avoidance decisions, outcome measures of interest to both architects and users of spaces alike. As predicted, participants were more likely to judge spaces as beautiful if they were curvilinear than rectilinear. Neuroanatomically, when contemplating beauty, curvilinear contour activated the anterior cingulate cortex exclusively, a region strongly responsive to the reward properties and emotional salience of objects. Complementing this finding, pleasantness-the valence dimension of the affect circumplex-accounted for nearly 60% of the variance in beauty ratings. Furthermore, activation in a distributed brain network known to underlie the aesthetic evaluation of different types of visual stimuli covaried with beauty ratings. In contrast, contour did not affect approach-avoidance decisions, although curvilinear spaces activated the visual cortex. The results suggest that the well-established effect of contour on aesthetic preference can be extended to architecture. Furthermore, the combination of our behavioral and neural evidence underscores the role of emotion in our preference for curvilinear objects in this domain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Participants rated houses of worship for one of seven variables: preference, tranquility, age, visual richness, building care, potential for recovery from fatigued attention, and potential for reflection. Factor analysis of the preference ratings yielded four content categories: “contemporary,” “traditional,” “unusual architecture,” and “older red brick churches.” Preference was positively correlated with visual richness and building care in the contemporary and traditional categories and had a positive partial correlation with age in the traditional category. Tranquility was positively correlated with preference, building care, recovery, and reflection in the contemporary category but only with reflection in the traditional category. Tranquility was rated higher overall than preference. Preference and visual richness were lower for contemporary architecture than for the other categories, but there were no differences in tranquility. Apparently, raters felt they could achieve tranquility in most houses of worship but preferred those higher in visual richness. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The author discusses the integration of a diagram of psychosocial development from psychoanalyst Erik H. Erikson to architectural modeling and visualization techniques. She states that the seminal method of Erikson examines the complexities of human development throughout the life cycle. The author notes that the description of interrelationship stages is limited for the diagram.

The author discusses the illumination of theories of dreams by psychologists Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan on seven architectural projects from 1527 to 1988. He argues for the comprehension of designs of buildings through the theories of Freud and Lacan. The author provides psychoanalysis on the construction of dreams.

An essay is presented on psychoanalysis for the reconstruction of Berlin, Germany as a means of redemption from the tragedy of the Holocaust. It examines an oscillation in the acceptance and denial of redeeming efforts which are reflected in architecture. The author extrapolates to the clinical situation wherein such efforts are often characterized by ambivalence.

The author discusses a psychoanalytic comprehension for the architectural structure of cities as a creation of psyche and body. He states that architecture influences the awareness for a need of refuge and environmental manipulation. The author notes that the triumph of ego in the construction of cities has been supplanted by the modernization of urban sociology.

This study investigates differences in analogical reasoning among first, second, and fourth year students and expert architects. Participants took part in an experiment consisting of four tasks: rating source examples, selecting a source domain, explaining their selection, and designing a bus stop. The results indicate significant differences among participants with respect to their soundness ratings. The results also show significant relation between level of expertise and participants' selection of source categories, the stated reasons for their selection, and the type of similarity they established between source and target. We conclude that experts preferred ‘mental hops’ while first year students preferred ‘mental leaps.’ Second and fourth year students preferred neither ‘mental leaps’ nor ‘mental hops’ but to literally copy the sources. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The purpose of the study is to identify Sudden Moments of Inspiration (SMI) in the architectural design process to examine the effect of subliminal suggestions on SMI. In the study, two experienced designers were selected and were provided with a design task. While one designer was subjected to subliminal suggestions through a slide show presentation and a video clip, the other designer was not. The design sessions of both designers were recorded, coded and analyzed, using concurrent and retrospective protocol methods. Comparison of the two design protocols provided convincing evidence of the occurrence of SMI influenced by subliminal suggestions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

A literary criticism is presented of the novel "Hard Times," by Charles Dickens. The portrayal of the psychological aspects of architecture, including of interior spaces and home decoration, within the book is discussed. The relationship between mental health and interior decoration, including the psychological aspects of an English classroom's interior decoration, is also discussed.

Optical illusions fascinate us, challenging our notion that what we see is real. They demonstrate that incoming sensory information is interpreted, yielding the internal representation of the world. Many illusions are found in architecture and, strangely enough, many of these were recognized long before painting developed beyond its primitive stages. The ever-changing relations of lines and forms in architecture as we vary our viewpoint introduce many illusions which may appear and disappear. This paper attempts to reveal the many illusions that are found in architecture from ancient times until today. From Ictinus and F. Borromini, to S. Calatrava and J. Nouvel, the study presents a list of selected projects -classified in three groups-that can reveal the magnitude of the illusory effect helping the observer to look for or recognize illusions. Particular concern of the paper lies in the way architects have approached optical illusions in each period and applied them in their projects in order to communicate ideas and concepts. For the purpose of showing the diachronic value of optical illusions in architecture, the study shows examples from classical architecture, where architects display a highly developed knowledge of many geometrical illusions, as well as from modern architecture where they introduce new illusory effects through digital technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The research on architectural design has been developed on ecology, system science and psychology. In the first part of this article, it analyzes targets and types of general design. On the basis of this, it discusses the developing process and the features of architectural design. Philosophic ideas of contemporary architectural design are the organic combination and highly unification of ecological design, dynamic design and psychological design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]