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The authors would like to acknowledge this study was funded by the project I + D + I under Grant [PID2019‐107201GB‐100]; and the regional project (Government of the Principality of Asturias) under Grant [FCGRUPIN‐IDI/2018/000199].

In research about attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) there is growing interest in evaluating cortical activation and using neurofeedback in interventions. This paper presents a case study using monopolar electroencephalogram recording (brain mapping known as MiniQ) for subsequent use in an intervention with neurofeedback for a 10-year-old girl presenting predominantly inattentive ADHD. A total of 75 training sessions were performed, and brain wave activity was assessed before and after the intervention. The results indicated post-treatment benefits in the beta wave (related to a higher level of concentration) and in the theta/beta ratio, but not in the theta wave (related to higher levels of drowsiness and distraction). These instruments may be beneficial in the evaluation and treatment of ADHD.

The three types of presentations of ADHD often co-occur with other disorders, anxiety being one of the most prevalent. For this reason and because there are few studies that have examined the influence of anxiety on attentional activities, this study aims to determine how internalizing difficulties (anxiety levels) can influence performance in a virtual reality continuous performance test. The study used a non-probabilistic clinical sample comprising 68 boys (66%) and 35 girls (34%) aged between 6 and 16 (M = 12.24; SD = 2.45) who had been referred to clinical services for the evaluation of ADHD symptoms. Once informed consent was given, the children were administered the STAI-C scale and a virtual reality continuous performance test by expert researchers. Hierarchical regression models showed that only state anxiety demonstrated significant explanatory power over attentional variables. These findings confirm how important it is for children to feel relaxed when they undergo psychological evaluation tests, as otherwise the individual’s intervention design would be based on biased data. Similarly, the findings also suggested an effect of IQ in the interpretation of continuous performance scores.

Supported by Ministry of Sciences and Innovation I+D+i Project, No. PID2019-107201GB-100; and Principality of Asturias, No. FC-GRUPIN-IDI/2018/000199.

Empirically Supported Psychological Treatments for Children and Adolescents: State of the Art.The empirical evidence accumulated on the efficacy, effectiveness, and efficiency of psychotherapeutic treatments in children and adolescents calls for an update. The main goal of this paper objective was to carry out a selective review of empirically supported psychological treatments for a variety of common psychological disorders and problems in childhood and adolescence.A review was carried out of the psychological treatments for different psychological disorders and problems in social-emotional or behavioral adjustment in the child-adolescent population according to the Spanish National Health System (Clinical Practice Guidelines) levels of evidence and degrees of recommendation.The findings suggest that psychological treatments have empirical support for addressing a wide range of psychological problems in these developmental stages. The degree of empirical support ranges from low to high depending on the phenomenon analyzed. The review suggests unequal progress in the different fields of intervention.From this update, psychologists will be able to make informed decisions when implementing those empirically supported treatments to address the problems that occur in childhood and adolescence.

Background: Early mathematical skills may be important indicators of school success. Executive Functions (EFs) such as attention and inhibitory control may be related to the development of early mathematical skills. Method: This study is aimed at understanding the relationship between two EFs (attention and inhibitory control) and low and high relational and numerical mathematical skills in preschool students (143 children between 4 and 6 years old). Participants completed the Early Numeracy Test Revised and a continuous performance test which assessed attention (omissions and response time [RT]) and inhibitory control (commissions and variability). Results: Logistic Binomial Regression Analysis was carried out showing that in 4 to 6-year olds there are differences in omissions, RT and variability between the groups (low and high relational and numerical mathematical skills). However, once the effect of the age was controlled for, only RT predicted numerical mathematical skills. Conclusions: The results highlight the importance of attention in the numerical skills of preschool students, with a greater weight of response time which is better in students with higher numerical mathematics skills.

The acquisition of reading comprehension abilities and written expression is one of the key factors among learning processes in which students show many difficulties. For this reason, it is necessary to implement effective intervention strategies from early school years. The program EPI.com is aimed at improving lexical, semantic, and syntactic processes related to the reading process. This work aims to analyze the efficiency of EPI.com in years 1&2 of Primary Education. Participants in the research were 62 students (ages 6–8), who were assigned to an Experimental Group (EG; 38 students receiving the EPI.com intervention) and a Control Group (CG; 24 following traditional teaching and learning methods). The Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities and the Peabody test were applied before and after the intervention was carried out. Results showed that the strategy was effective in EG in improving the psycholinguistic aspects measured by the ITPA, with better results in the variables related to syntactic and lexical processing. Taking the results into account, it was concluded that EPI.com allows students to improve the abilities relating to reading skills. Also, the results highlight the need to incorporate interventions aimed at favoring maturation in some key aspects at early ages.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been associated with low levels of self-concept (academic, emotional, social or physical), although this association can differ in the function of the inattention or hyperactivity&ndash, impulsivity symptomatology. Furthermore, the relation between ADHD and self-concept can be mediated or moderated by the levels of anxiety. This work is aimed to examine the differential effect of inattention symptomatology and hyperactivity&ndash, impulsivity symptomatology on academic, emotional, social and physical self-concept and the mediating or moderating role of anxiety in this relationship. A total of 167 students (70.7% boys and 29.3% girls) aged between 11 and 16 participated in this study. Students&rsquo, ADHD symptomatology, self-concept in four areas (academic, emotional, social and physical self-concept) and trait anxiety were measured with the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children. The results indicate that trait anxiety mediates the relationship between inattention and emotional, social and physical self-concept but does not moderate this relationship. Trait anxiety does not mediate or moderate the relationship between hyperactivity&ndash, impulsivity symptoms and self-concept. When inattention symptomatology increases, academic self-concept decreases directly, but students&rsquo, emotional, social and physical self-concept decreases indirectly through trait anxiety.

espanolLa Representacion Dinamica Integrada (RDI) es una estrategia de intervencion que pretende mejorar las competencias matematicas basicas y la resolucion de problemas. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo analizar la eficacia de la RDI en estudiantes con dificultades de aprendizaje en matematicas (DAM) con un nivel de gravedad leve y moderado. Para ello, un total de 80 estudiantes (6-9 anos) que presentaban DAM de forma leve o moderada, fueron clasificados en grupo comparativo (GC; 40 estudiantes que seguian la metodologia habitual) y grupo tratamiento (GT; 40 estudiantes que trabajaron con la RDI). Los resultados mostraron la efectividad de la RDI frente a la metodologia tradicional para los dos niveles de DAM. El GT mejoro en la totalidad de las competencias independientemente del nivel de gravedad. El GC mostro una mejora en algunas de las competencias en el nivel de gravedad leve. Los resultados sugieren que la RDI proporciona buenos resultados en estudiantes con un nivel de gravedad leve y moderado. EnglishThe Integrated Dynamic Representation (IDR) is a strategy that attempts to improve basic mathematic skills and problem solving. The present study is aimed at analyzing the effectiveness of the IDR in learning difficulties in mathematics (LDM) depending on their severity levels. A sample of 80 students (age range: 6-9) with mild and moderate LDM took part in the study. They were assigned to two groups: control group (CG; 40 students who followed the traditional methodology), and treatment group (TG; 40 students who received intervention with IDR). Results demonstrated the effectiveness of the intervention with IDR in comparison to the traditional methodology in both severity levels. The TG presented improvements in all the competencies analyzed, regardless the severity level; while the CG showed some improvements in informal and formal skills, but only within the mild severity level. These findings suggest that IDR strategy leads to better results in students with mild and moderate LDM.

Resumen En el proceso de aprendizaje resulta clave la adquisicion de habilidades de comprension y expresion, sobre todo dadas las dificultades de los estudiantes. La estrategia informatizada EPI.com se basa en la adaptacion del hipertexto a Educacion Infantil con el fin de mejorar los procesos lexicos, semanticos y sintacticos. En este trabajo se plantea como objetivo analizar la eficacia de EPI.com en la mejora de aspectos psicolinguisticos y verbales de forma global y en funcion de la edad. Participaron 155 estudiantes (3-6 anos) clasificados en grupo experimental (93 estudiantes que trabajaron con EPI.com) y grupo control (62 estudiantes que siguieron la metodologia habitual). Todos ellos fueron evaluados con el Test de Illinois de Habilidades Psicolinguisticas y el test Peabody. Los resultados muestran la eficacia de la estrategia en el grupo experimental, con puntuaciones estadisticamente significativas en los aspectos psicolinguisticos frente al grupo control. Son los estudiantes de 3 anos quienes obtienen un mayor beneficio. Se concluyo la eficacia de EPI.com sobre la mejora de los aspectos psicolinguisticos con la muestra utilizada.

The acquisition of comprehension and expression skills is the key in the learning process, especially given the difficulties of students. EPI.com is a computerized strategy based on the adaptation of hypertext to Early Childhood Education. It aims to improve the lexical, semantic and syntactic processes. The objective of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of EPI.com for improving overall and specific psycho-linguistic and verbal aspects (depending on the age). To this end, a total of 155 participants (3–6 years old) were classified into two groups, an Experimental Group (93 children who worked with EPI.com) and a Control Group (62 children who followed the traditional methodology). All of them completed the Illinois Test of Psycho-linguistic Abilities, and the Peabody test. The results showed the effectiveness of the strategy in the Experimental Group in the Psycho-linguistic Abilities. The 3 year-old children obtained the greatest benefits with the intervention. The analysis concluded that EPI.com is effective in improving psycho-linguistic abilities in this population sample.

Government of the Principality of Asturias (Spain) (Plan of Science, Technology, and Innovation 2018-2022); European Union (European Regional Development Fund - ERDF)European Union (EU) [FC-GRUPINIDI/2018/000199]; Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities [PGC2018-097739-B-I00], This work was funded by the Government of the Principality of Asturias (Spain) (Plan of Science, Technology, and Innovation 2018-2022), the European Union (EuropeanRegional Development Fund - ERDF) (Ref. FCGRUPINIDI/2018/000199), and the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Ref. PGC2018-097739-B-I00).

Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(2), 204 (2019); https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8020204, This research was funded by the I+D+i MINECO project, reference EDU2015-65023-P, and the regional project, reference FC-GRUPIN-IDI/2018/000199.

espanolEn el rendimiento deportivo, influyen variables psicologicas como el clima motivacional, las orientaciones de meta, las necesidades psicologicas basicas del deporte y la cohesion del equipo. Este estudio plantea como objetivo examinar la relacion entre este conjunto de variables psicologicas (clima motivacional, la orientacion de meta, las necesidades psicologicas basicas del deporte y la cohesion) en varones y mujeres futbolistas. Participaron 175 futbolistas de entre 12 y 26 anos (M = 15.59, DE = 2.8) que compiten en clubs de diferentes categorias de la Liga Espanola de Futbol. Todos ellos realizan cuatro cuestionarios dirigidos a valorar el clima motivacional (de maestria y ejecucion), las orientaciones de meta (a la tarea o al yo), las necesidades psicologicas (de competencia, autonomia y relacion) y la cohesion (de tarea-grupal o de grupo-social). Los analisis de correlacion y regresion reflejan relaciones estadisticamente significativas, destacando la relacion entre el clima de maestria, la orientacion a la tarea y las tres necesidades psicologicas basicas del deporte. Ademas, la variable con mayor poder predictivo de la satisfaccion de las necesidades psicologicas es el clima de maestria. La presencia de un clima motivacional de maestria se relaciona significativamente con otras variables psicologicas positivas para la practica deportiva. EnglishPsychological variables such as motivational climate, goal orientations, basic psychological sport needs and team cohesion have an influence on sports performance. This study aims at examining the relationships among that set of psychological variables (motivational climate, goal orientation, basic psychological sport needs and cohesion) in male and female footballers. Participants were 175 soccer players, aged 12 to 26 (M = 15.59, SD = 2.80), competing in different levels of the Spanish Football League. They all took four questionnaires aimed at evaluating the motivational climate (mastery and execution), goal orientations (task and ego-involving), psychological needs (for competence, autonomy and relation) and cohesion (group-task or group-social). The analyses of correlation and regression show significant statistic relations particularly that between mastery climate, task orientation and the three basic psychological needs in sport. Furthermore, the best variable in predicting psychological needs is mastery (involving) climate. The presence of a perceived mastery (involving) motivational climate is significantly related to other positive psychological variables for sport practice.

espanolEl objetivo de este estudio ha sido poner a prueba un metodo de evaluacion del proceso implicado en la resolucion de problemas matematicos, basado en la metodologia de la Triple Tarea y en los principios del Aprendizaje Autorregulado. Este protocolo se administro a 510 estudiantes de quinto y sexto curso procedentes del Norte de Espana, los cuales realizaron dos tareas matematicas de diferente dificultad. Los resultados indicaron la presencia de unas estrategias de planificacion ineficaces, asi como la ausencia de mecanismos de revision. Sin embargo, el analisis de las diferencias entre los grupos con diferente rendimiento en las tareas revelo los sub-procesos implicados en la planificacion, y especialmente el empleo de estrategias de representacion de la informacion, como determinantes importantes en el exito de los estudiantes, ejerciendo un efecto mayor conforme la dificultad de la tarea aumento. EnglishThe aim of this study was to test a method to assess the processes involved in mathematical problem solving, based on the Triple Task methodology and Self-Regulated Learning principles. This protocol was administered to 510 fifth and sixth grade students from Northern Spain, who carried out two mathematical tasks of varying difficulty. The results derived from the total sample indicated the presence of ineffective planning strategies and a lack of revision mechanisms. However, comparisons between groups with different achievement in the tasks revealed the sub-processes involved in planning (especially the use of representation strategies) as important determining factors in student s´ success rates , with these exerting a greater effect as task-difficulty increased.

The relationship between students' motivation and attitudes towards mathematics, the approaches to learning they use, and their achievement in mathematics has been widely documented in middle school and further academic levels. However, the empirical research in earlier educational stages remains scarce. This study analyzed the predictive value of affective-motivational variables and deep and surface approaches to learning on mathematics achievement in a sample of 524 upper elementary students. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to examine the predictors of mathematics achievement. Mathematics enjoyment positively predicted mathematics achievement and age and the use of the surface approach to learning negatively predicted mathematics achievement. The variables in the model explained 21.3% of the variance in mathematics achievement. Mean differences in the affective-motivational variables and approaches to learning occurred between students with very high and very low achievement in mathematics, yielding further evidence of important differences between the achievement extremes.

Problem solving represents a salient deficit in students with mathematical learning difficulties (MLD) primarily caused by difficulties with informal and formal mathematical competencies. This study proposes a computerized intervention tool, the integrated dynamic representation (IDR), for enhancing the early learning of basic mathematical competencies and word problem solving skills. The goal was to compare and contrast the effects of IDR on the acquisition of informal and formal mathematical competencies in students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and MLD. Participants were 216 students (6–9 years), who were classified into three groups: ADHD (n = 72), MLD (n = 82), ADHD and MLD (n = 62). They completed the Test of Early Mathematics Ability (Third Edition). The results showed that all three diagnosed groups improved significantly postintervention in all mathematical competencies, with the MLD-only group benefiting the most at posttest.

Objective: To analyze the diagnostic effectiveness of the AULA Nesplora test to discriminate the different ADHD presentations: impulsive/hyperactive (I/H), inattentive, and combined.Method: A total of 117 students (76.9% male and 23.1% female) between 5 and 16 years of age ( M = 11.18 years, SD = 3.10 years) participated, and were divided into three groups with ADHD according to their presentation, and a control group. Results: Each of the test conditions allowed the discrimination between the I/H and combined presentations with respect to the control group, and between the I/H and inattentive presentations. However, differences among ADHD presentations were only evident when the results were separately analyzed for the visual and auditory modalities. Conclusion: This study showed that the indicators offered by the AULA Nesplora test (omissions, commissions, response times, and motor activity) make it possible to establish a differential diagnosis of ADHD presentations when analyzed under different contextual conditions.

Magnitude comparison skills have been related to mathematics competence, although results in this area vary. The current study aimed to describe the performance of 75 children (aged 4-5 years) in two comparison tasks; and examine the strength of the relationship between each of the two tasks and mathematics competence level (MCL). Participants were assessed with the Early Numeracy Test which provides a global MCL score. Magnitude comparison skills were assessed with two tasks: a non-symbolic number comparison task and a spatial comparison task. Results of the Pearson correlation analysis showed a relationship between the two tasks with better performance in the spatial comparison task. Regression analysis with the stepwise method showed that only the non-symbolic number comparison task had a significant value in the prediction of the MCL pointing to the need to take these kinds of tasks into account in the first years of school.

espanolEl objetivo de este trabajo es presentar las propiedades psicometricas de un cuestionario breve para la evaluacion del funcionamiento ejecutivo en ninos y adolescentes, que adopta la forma de escala de valoracion de la conducta, a cumplimentar por la familia. Tras una validacion piloto previa, la Escala de Funcionamiento Ejecutivo para Familias (EFE-F) fue puesta a prueba con las familias de 1019 estudiantes de 8 a 18 anos de edad, pertenecientes a 41 centros educativos de Asturias (Espana). Los analisis factoriales confirmatorios mostraron que el modelo que mejor se ajusta a los datos es el formado por nueve factores: Inhibicion, Hiperactividad, Control Emocional, Capacidad de Concentracion, Focalizacion de la Atencion, Capacidad de Planificacion, Organizacion, Memoria Funcional y Flexibilidad. La fiabilidad fue elevada para el conjunto de la escala y moderada para los factores que la componen. EnglishThe aim of this study is to present the psychometric properties of a brief questionnaire for the assessment of executive functioning in children and adolescents, which takes the form of a behavior rating scale, and designed to be answered by families. After a validation pilot study, the Executive Functioning Scale for Families (EFE-F in Spanish) was tested with the families of 1019 students aged 8-18, from 41 schools in Asturias (Spain). Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the model that best fits the data is composed by nine factors: Inhibition, Hyperactivity, Emotional Control, Concentration, Focus, Planning, Organization, Functional Memory and Flexibility. Reliability was high for the whole scale and moderate for its factors.

Background/Objective: Continuous Performance Tests (CPTs) have demonstrated validity when differentiating children with ADHD from healthy controls. However, these CPTs have limitations such as low ecological validity. New CPTs based on the use of Virtual Reality (VR) have appeared as supposedly improved methods for assessing ADHD. This study aims to compare the discriminant value of attentional variables produced by a VR CPT (Aula Nesplora) with that of variables from a traditional CPT (Test of Variables of Attention; TOVA) for identifying ADHD. Method: A total of 338 children aged between 6 and 16 years old (M = 10.84, SD = 3.01) participated in the study: 31.95% correspond to the inattentive presentation, 15.38% to the impulsive-hyperactive presentation, 22.78% to the combined presentation, and the remaining 29.88% correspond to children without ADHD. Results: Results indicated that Aula Nesplora predicts ADHD presentations better than TOVA. It also differentiates better between ADHD and non-ADHD students. Conclusions: These findings show the potential advantages of using virtual reality in ADHD assessment, as it facilitates the diagnosis of ADHD and the differentiation of its presentations in a realistic environment.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a problem that impacts academic performance and has serious consequences that result in difficulties in scholastic, social and familial contexts. One of the most common problems in the identification of this disorder relates to the apparent over diagnosis of the disorder due to the absence of global protocols for assessment. The research group of School Learning, Difficulties and Academic Performance (ADIR) from the University of Oviedo, has developed a complete protocol that suggests the existence of certain patterns of cortical activation and executive control for identifying ADHD more objectively. This protocol takes into consideration some of the hypothetical determinants of ADHD, including the relationship between activation of selected areas of the brain, and differences in performance on various aspects of executive functioning such as omissions, commissions or response times, using innovative tools of Continuous Performance Testing (based on Virtual Reality CPT and Traditional CPT) and brain activation measures (two different tools, based on Hemoencephalography- nirHEG; and Quantified Electroencephalography --Q-EEG, respectively). This model of assessment aims to provide an effective assessment of ADHD symptomatology in order to design an accurate intervention and make appropriate recommendations for parents and teachers.

Background Students commonly struggle with mathematics and mathematical problem-solving. Therefore, it is necessary to design and implement interventions aimed at improving these essential components of learning. Furthermore, the outcomes of these interventions can vary significantly and appear to be a function of a student's initial competencies in mathematics. Aim This study attempts to analyse the influence of initial levels of mathematics competency with respect to the benefits of a specific intervention known as the Integrated Dynamic Representation (IDR). Sample Participants were 288 students (aged 6-8 years) who were divided according to their levels of mathematics competency (low-medium-high). Methods Students were assigned to the two primary intervention groups, experimental group (EG; students who received the IDR intervention) and control group (CG; students who followed the traditional instructional methods). All participants completed the Test of Early Mathematics Abilities (TEMA-3) both before and after the intervention. Results and conclusions Although all the three competency levels of the EG improved, the progression was different for each level. Results showed that students with low competency level improved substantially more than the students with medium and/or high baseline competency level.

Resumen basado en el de la publicación Título, resumen y palabras clave también en inglés Uno de los condicionantes en el aprendizaje de las matemáticas son las variables afectivo-motivacionales de los estudiantes hacia esta asignatura. Así, variables como la utilidad percibida, competencia percibida, motivación intrínseca y ansiedad hacia las matemáticas juegan un papel clave en el aprendizaje de esta asignatura. Teniendo en cuenta las nuevas metodologías en la enseñanza, tales como las pizarras digitales y las aplicaciones hipermedia, se pretende analizar el beneficio del uso de las mismas en términos de las condiciones afectivo-motivacionales mencionadas y en qué medida dichos beneficios están relacionados con los niveles afectivo-motivacionales previos. Para alcanzar este objetivo se trabajó con 425 estudiantes de quinto y sexto de Educación Primaria, quienes recibieron instrucción matemática con el apoyo de una herramienta hipermedia. Se recogieron los niveles afectivomotivacionales de todos los estudiantes antes y después de la intervención instruccional utilizando el Inventario de Actitud hacia las Matemáticas. Los resultados de la prueba t de student para muestras relacionadas mostraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en el postest frente al pretest en las variables competencia percibida y ansiedad ante las matemáticas. Además, fueron aquellos estudiantes con bajos niveles afectivo-motivacionales previos quienes mostraron un mayor beneficio de la intervención. Estos resultados son discutidos a la luz de los resultados de la investigación pasada y se sugieren líneas de investigación futura. ESP

En el proceso de construcción del Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior la renovación de la metodología educativa se erige como un foco clave y fundamental para toda la Universidad española. En el caso de la Formación del Profesorado de Infantil y Primaria fue necesario el diseño de las titulaciones conforme al perfil profesional del maestro y determinar las competencias que dicho perfil integra. En el presente trabajo, se ejemplifica esta necesidad con un caso concreto de esta nueva formación en la recientemente creada Facultad de Formación del Profesorado y Educación de la Universidad de Oviedo. El objetivo se centró en describir primeramente, la estructura de las nuevas titulaciones de grado de la formación del profesorado, seguido de una descripción de aspectos de gestión, estructurales, etc., que acompañaron la transformación de los estudios. Las implicaciones derivadas del cambio producido, nos llevan a pensar en las posibilidades de mejora en la formación de los futuros maestros de infantil y primaria.

Student approaches to learning and metacognitive strategies are two important conditioning factors in solving mathematical problems. The evidence suggests that it is the deep approach to learning which leads to student success in such tasks. The present study focused on analyzing the differences in metacognitive knowledge and skills in a sample of 524 fifth and sixth grade students divided into three groups based on their different levels of use of a deep approach (241= low; 152= medium; and 131= high). Metacognitive knowledge was assessed using the Learning Strategies Knowledge Questionnaire, while evidence about metacognitive skills was gathered by means of process measures (Triple Tasks Procedure) during students’ solving of two mathematical word problems. Statistically significant differences in metacognitive knowledge were found among groups while differences in metacognitive skills were only found in the second task, with a low effect size.

Calibration, or the correspondence between perceived performance and actual performance, is linked to students’ metacognitive and self-regulatory skills. Making students more aware of the quality of their performance is important in elementary school settings, and more so when math problems are involved. However, many students seem to be poorly calibrated, with a tendency towards over-confidence. The present study analyzes the relationship between post-performance calibration accuracy and the metacognitive process shown by 524 fifth- and sixth-grade students while solving two math problems. After calculating a calibration index and establishing the stability of students’ judgments and actual performance, differences in the metacognitive process exhibited by students with different calibration accuracy (Accurate vs. Inaccurate groups) were analyzed. The emergence of different calibration patterns and differences in the metacognitive process as a function of mathematics achievement and grade level were also examined. Results indicated that: (a) students in the overall sample were little calibrated and over-confident, showing high stability in their judgments and actual performance across problems; (b) inaccurate students reported using information representation sub-processes (drawing/summarizing) less frequently, but writing and reviewing (and also correcting mistakes) more frequently than their accurate peers; and (c) differences in calibration patterns and the metacognitive process were found when achievement level was considered, whereas grade level did not generate any important effect. These findings suggest the usefulness of process-based measures to examine the metacognitive processes involved in making post-performance judgments, considering achievement and its possible mediating role in this relationship.

This study aimed to describe and compare naming speed abilities in children diagnosed with either Reading Learning Difficulties (RLD) or Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), or comorbidity for both (ADHD+RLD). To examine the explanatory power of naming speed and ADHD symptomatology in predicting group associations (while controlling for gender and age), the "Rapid Automatized Naming and Rapid Alternating Stimulus Tests" (RAN/RAS) were utilized. A sample of 101 children (age range = 5-16 years) was divided into four groups: RLD (n = 14), ADHD (n = 28), comorbid (n = 19), and control (n = 40). There were statistically significant differences in RAN/RAS results among the diagnostic groups. Moreover, discriminant analysis revealed that naming speed tasks significantly predicted reading and attentional problems, especially at earlier ages. These results demonstrate the potential usefulness of RAN/RAS in the diagnosis of reading and attentional problems, particularly if the children are aged from 5 to 9.

While naming speed, which is usually assessed with tests such as RAN/RAS, has proven to be useful in predicting certain reading errors and attentional difficulties, the variables that predict performance in the test have not been examined before now. The objective of this study is to test the explanatory power of certain reading and attentional variables over naming speed performance depending on diagnosis. A sample of 132 students, divided into four groups (Control, n=34; Reading difficulties, n= 22; ADHD, n=41; and ADHD+Reading Difficulties, n=35) was used. The results show: 1) without any difficulties, naming speed is explained by IQ, age and gender; 2) in the presence of reading difficulties, reading errors are the variables with more explanatory power; 3) in the presence of attentional difficulties, certain attentional variables such as those provided by the TOVA test were shown to be more significant. Si bien la velocidad de denominación, generalmente evaluada con pruebas como el RAN/RAS ha demostrado su utilidad en la predicción de ciertos errores lectores y dificultades atencionales, hasta el momento no se ha analizado que variables predicen el rendimiento en la prueba. El objetivo del presente estudio es comprobar el poder explicativo de determinadas variables lectoras y atencionales sobre la velocidad de denominación en función del diagnóstico. Se utilizó una muestra de 132 estudiantes divididos en cuatro grupos (Control, n=34; Dificultades Lectoras, n=22; TDAH, n=41; y TDAH y Dificultades Lectoras, n=35). Los resultados mostraron: 1) en ausencia de dificultades, la velocidad de denominación es explicada por el CI, la edad y el género; 2) ante dificultades lectoras, las variables con mayor poder predictivo son los errores de lectura; 3) ante dificultades atencionales, son ciertas variables atencionales como los índices proporcionados por el TOVA, las que muestran una mayor significatividad.