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Zooplankton plays a pivotal role in sustaining the majority of marine ecosystems. The distribution patterns and diversity of zooplankton provide key information for understanding the functioning of these ecosystems. Nevertheless, due to the numerous cryptic and sibling species and the lack of diagnostic characteristics for early developmental stages, the identification of the global-to-local patterns of zooplankton biodiversity and biogeography remains challenging in different research fields. The spatial and temporal changes in the zooplankton community in the open waters of the southern Gulf of Mexico were assessed using metabarcoding analysis of the V9 region of 18S rRNA and mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase c subunit I (COI). Additionally, a multiscale analysis was implemented to evaluate which environmental predictors may explain the variability in the structure of the zooplankton community. Our findings suggest that the synergistic effects of dissolved oxygen concentration, temperature, and longitude (intended as a proxy for still unidentified predictors) may explain both spatial and temporal zooplankton variability even with low contribution. Furthermore, the zooplankton distribution probably reflects the coexistence of three heterogeneous ecoregions and a bio-physical partitioning of the studied area. Finally, some taxa were either exclusive or predominant with either 18S or COI markers. This may suggest that comprehensive assessments of the zooplankton community may be more accurately met by the use of multilocus approaches.

Zooplankton is a key component in marine ecosystem health assessment. Here, we present a taxonomically comprehensive description of the zooplankton community (0–200 m) based on metabarcoding of the V9 hypervariable region of the 18S rRNA gene of 47 samples collected in the Gulf of Mexico (GoM) during summer 2015. Fourteen phyla were identified Arthropoda were dominant, with Calanidae, Metridinidae, and Euphausiidae as the most conspicuous families. Other abundant phyla were Cnidaria (Hydrozoa), Chordata (Tunicata), and Chaetognatha. The V9-18S sequence data were clustered into 1888 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs), of which 39 were cosmopolitan and belonging to various phyla, suggesting the presence of a core community with high local diversity throughout the GoM. Evaluation of metabarcoding sequences abundance showed overall positive correlations with morphologically quantified abundances except for specific groups. Cluster analysis of OTU distributions indicated two primary biographically distinctive groups of stations: one restricted to the Bay of Campeche, while the other occurred in the Central-West GoM, similar to previous descriptions of regional variation of the GoM based on environmental variables. Together these results provide a foundation for broad-scale zooplankton molecular biodiversity assessments in the southern GoM allowing evaluation of the effects of environmental changes on zooplankton communities.

Mesoscale features within the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) are known to influence zooplankton dynamics. Here we describe the composition of the zooplankton assemblage off shelf during summer in relation to environmental conditions, with emphasis on hyperiid amphipods and salps. Zooplankton samples were collected in summer of 2015 and 2016 in the central and southern GOM and in the Yucatan Channel in 2015. Two anticyclonic gyres were present in the north and less intense coupled cyclonic-anticyclonic gyres in the south. Zooplankton abundances differed temporally and spatially. Copepods were the dominant group (>55% of total abundance), while several less abundant taxa contributed to inter-annual and spatial differences. Amphipods and salps comprised Lestrigonus bengalensis(summer 2015),Anchylomera blossevilleiandPrimnospp. juveniles (summer 2016). Dominant salp species wereIhlea punctata,Iasis cylindricaandThaliaspp. Lower salp and amphipod species richness and abundance were associated with anticyclonic structures. Spatial and temporal differences were partly associated with symbiotic relationships between the groups. This study supports previous evidence of high spatial and temporal variability in zooplankton abundance in off-shelf waters of the GOM.

Zooplankton play a pivotal role in sustaining the majority of marine ecosystems. The distribution patterns and diversity of zooplankton provide key information for understanding the functioning of these ecosystems. Nevertheless, due to the numerous cryptic and sibling species and the lack of diagnostic characteristics for immature developmental stages, the identification of the global-to-local patterns of zooplankton biodiversity and biogeography remains a challenge in different research fields. Here, the spatial and temporal changes in the zooplankton community from the open waters of the southern section of the Gulf of Mexico were assessed using a multilocus sequence analysis and metabarcoding approach based on the genetic information of 18S and cytochrome oxidase c subunit I (COI) genes. Additionally, a multi-scale analysis was implemented to evaluate which environmental predictors may explain the variability in the structure of the zooplankton community. Our finding suggests that the synergistic effects of oxygen, temperature, and longitude (intended as a proxy for still unexplored forces) may explain both spatial and temporal changes in the zooplankton community. Furthermore, the zooplankton distribution likely reflects the coexistence of three heterogeneous ecoregions and a bio-physical partitioning of the studied area. Finally, some taxa were either exclusive or predominant with either 18S or COI data. This may suggest that comprehensive assessments of the zooplankton community may be more accurately met by the use of multi-locus approaches.

Accurate identification of fish larval stages is complicated and time-consuming due to the lack of diagnostic morphological characters, especially during early developmental stages. The distribution of lanternfish (Myctophidae) has been described based on the morphological identification of adult stages. Larvae of only a few species of Myctophidae have been described, and the description is not always precise. In this study, larvae were collected and morphologically identified as Diaphus mollis, Hygophum hygomii, H. reinhardtii, H. taaningi, Myctophum obtusirostre and M. selenops. The DNA barcode region of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I gene (COI) was determined for all larvae. The COI sequences matched reference barcodes available in GenBank for 14 of the identified larvae. The remaining COI sequences matched reference barcodes for different species of Myctophidae including Centrobranchus nigroocellatus, Diogenichthys atlanticus and Lepidophanes guentheri. This effort demonstrated the importance of integrated morphological and molecular analysis of species diversity and distribution of the Myctophidae in the Gulf of México.

The Southern Ocean salp, Salpa thompsoni (Tunicata, Thaliacea), is a pivotal species in the pelagic ecosystem of the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP), one of the fastest warming regions of the world oceans. This study produced a complete reference transcriptome for S. thompsoni containing 216,931 sequences; 41,210 (18%) were associated with predicted, hypothetical, or known proteins; 13,058 (6%) were mapped and annotated. Whole-transcriptome (RNA-seq) analysis of 39 samples collected during austral spring and summer 2011 in the WAP and in summer 2009 in the Indian Sector revealed clustering of samples by regions, seasons, and areas (Bray–Curtis similarity). The highest numbers of differentially expressed genes at the 4×, 20×, and 100× fold-change levels were found between salps collected during spring versus summer 2011 in the WAP (analysis of variance, ANOVA). Spring versus summer samples showed significant differential expression of 77 genes associated with environmental stress response and 51 genes associated with sexual reproduction (paired t tests, p < 0.05), with significant association between expression of these genes and temperature at the collection site shown by multidimensional scaling analysis. Gene Ontology (GO) term enrichment analysis identified 41 GO terms responsible for spring versus summer differences, including 156 genes associated with translation (i.e., protein synthesis). The reference transcriptome and characterization of time/space patterns of whole-transcriptome and target gene differential expression provide a foundation for functional analysis and identification of molecular markers of physiological condition, life history events, and responses to climate change in this key species in Antarctic pelagic ecosystems.

A preliminary genome sequence has been assembled for the Southern Ocean salp, Salpa thompsoni (Urochordata, Thaliacea). Despite the ecological importance of this species in Antarctic pelagic food webs and its potential role as an indicator of changing Southern Ocean ecosystems in response to climate change, no genomic resources are available for S. thompsoni or any closely related urochordate species. Using a multiple-platform, multiple-individual approach, we have produced a 318,767,936-bp genome sequence, covering >50% of the estimated 602 Mb (±173 Mb) genome size for S. thompsoni. Using a nonredundant set of predicted proteins, >50% (16,823) of sequences showed significant homology to known proteins and ∼38% (12,151) of the total protein predictions were associated with Gene Ontology functional information. We have generated 109,958 SNP variant and 9,782 indel predictions for this species, serving as a resource for future phylogenomic and population genetic studies. Comparing the salp genome to available assemblies for four other urochordates, Botryllus schlosseri, Ciona intestinalis, Ciona savignyi and Oikopleura dioica, we found that S. thompsoni shares the previously estimated rapid rates of evolution for these species. High mutation rates are thus independent of genome size, suggesting that rates of evolution >1.5 times that observed for vertebrates are a broad taxonomic characteristic of urochordates. Tests for positive selection implemented in PAML revealed a small number of genes with sites undergoing rapid evolution, including genes involved in ribosome biogenesis and metabolic and immune process that may be reflective of both adaptation to polar, planktonic environments as well as the complex life history of the salps. Finally, we performed an initial survey of small RNAs, revealing the presence of known, conserved miRNAs, as well as novel miRNA genes; unique piRNAs; and mature miRNA signatures for varying developmental stages. Collectively, these resources provide a genomic foundation supporting S. thompsoni as a model species for further examination of the exceptional rates and patterns of genomic evolution shown by urochordates. Additionally, genomic data will allow for the development of molecular indicators of key life history events and processes and afford new understandings and predictions of impacts of climate change on this key species of Antarctic pelagic ecosystems.

The Southern Ocean krill, Euphausia superba, is one of the best-studied marine zooplankton species in terms of population genetic diversity and structure; with few exceptions, previous studies have shown the species to be genetically homogeneous at larger spatial scales. The goals of this study are to examine sub-regional scale population genetic diversity and structure of E. superba using molecular characters selected with this goal in mind, and to thereby examine hypotheses of the source(s) of recruitment for krill populations of the Western Antarctic Peninsula (WAP). Collections were made throughout the WAP region during US GLOBEC cruises in austral fall, 2001 and 2002. A total of 585 E. superba (including all 6 furcilia larval stages, juveniles, and adults) was analyzed after confirmation of species identification using a competitive multiplexed species-specific PCR (SS-PCR) reaction based on mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (mtCOI) sequences. The molecular markers used were allele frequencies at single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) sites in the gene encoding mitochondrial Cytochrome b (cyt b). Four SNP sites that showed desirable patterns of allelic variation were selected; alleles were detected using a multiplexed single-base extension PCR protocol. A total of 22 SNP haplotypes (i.e., strings of polymorphisms at the four SNP sites) was observed; haplotype diversity (Hd)=0.811 (s.d.=0.008). Analysis of molecular variation within and among samples, areas (i.e., Marguerite Bay, Crystal Sound, shelf, and offshore) and collection years revealed no difference between 2001 and 2002 collections overall, although differences between 2001 and 2002 collections from Marguerite Bay explained 7.4% of the variance (FST=0.072; p=0.002±0.001). Most of the variation (96.3%) occurred within samples each year, with no significant differentiation among areas. There was small, but significant differentiation among samples within areas in 2001 (4.6%; FST=0.045; p=0.015±0.003) and 2002 (6.3%; FST=0.062; p=0.000±0.000). There was evidence of life stage-specific spatial differentiation for furcilia in 2002 for F1 (18.1%, p=0.000±0.000) and F2 (9.2%, p=0.001±0.001). The significant differentiation among samples for E. superba within areas was interpreted as evidence of multiple sources of recruitment of E. superba in the WAP region, consistent with advective transport in observed circulation patterns and reproduction and spawning in both offshore and shelf habitats. Further population genetic analysis at sub-regional scales is needed to understand and eventually predict population dynamic processes (e.g., recruitment, migration, retention, and over-wintering) of Southern Ocean krill.

Wiebe, P. H., Chu, D., Kaartvedt, S., Hundt, A., Melle, W., Ona, E., and Batta-Lona, P. 2010. The acoustic properties of Salpa thompsoni. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 67: 583–593. Aggregations of the salp Salpa thompsoni were encountered during the Antarctic krill and ecosystem-studies cruise on the RV “G.O. Sars” from 19 February to 27 March 2008. The salp's in situ target strength (TS), size, number of individuals in aggregate chains, and chain angle of orientation were determined. Shipboard measurements were made of Salpa thompsoni's material properties. Individual aggregates were mostly 45.5–60.6 mm in mean length; relatively rare solitaries were ∼100 mm. Chains ranged from 3 to at least 121 individuals, and in surface waters (