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Background: Little is known about the interaction between predators and wildfires, in part because the large home range and scarcity of predators make their study difficult, and their response is strongly species-specific. Aims: In this paper, we study, for the first time, the effect of wildfire on the behaviour of Bonelli’s eagles (Aquila fasciata) simultaneously tracked by GPS/GSM dataloggers in four neighbouring territories. Methods: One territory was burnt in a wildfire and the other three were used for comparison. We computed the home-range area by comparing individual spatial and temporal behaviour before, during and after the fire event using kernel density estimators and movement parameters. Key results: Our results show an immediate negative effect during the first days of the wildfire for an individual inhabiting the burnt territory – the individual flew directly away from the burning area. However, after a few days, the individual recovered their usual behaviour. The three neighbouring pairs did not show significant differences in behavioural parameters before, during and after the wildfire. Conclusions and implications: Our results suggest that occasional wildfires do not affect the distribution and density of Bonelli’s eagles in the short or medium-term (two years after fire). This could be the result of adaptation by this species to the frequent and recurrent wildfires in the Mediterranean area. This work was supported by Red Eléctrica de España and Wildlife Service of the Valencian Community regional government (Conselleria d’Agricultura, Desenvolupament Rural, Emergència Climàtica i Transició Ecològica, Generalitat Valenciana, Spain). We also thank project FIROTIC (PGC2018-096569-B-I00, Spanish Government).

1. Wind turbines and power lines can cause bird mortality due to collision or electrocution. The biodiversity impacts of energy infrastructure (EI) can be minimised through effective landscape-scale planning and mitigation. The identification of high-vulnerability areas is urgently needed to assess potential cumulative impacts of EI while supporting the transition to zero carbon energy.2. We collected GPS location data from 1,454 birds from 27 species susceptible to collision within Europe and North Africa and identified areas where tracked birds are most at risk of colliding with existing EI. Sensitivity to EI development was estimated for wind turbines and power lines by calculating the proportion of GPS flight locations at heights where birds were at risk of collision and accounting for species' specific susceptibility to collision. We mapped the maximum collision sensitivity value obtained across all species, in each 5 × 5 km grid cell, across Europe and North Africa. Vulnerability to collision was obtained by overlaying the sensitivity surfaces with density of wind turbines and transmission power lines.3. Results: Exposure to risk varied across the 27 species, with some species flying consistently at heights where they risk collision. For areas with sufficient tracking data within Europe and North Africa, 13.6% of the area was classified as high sensitivity to wind turbines and 9.4% was classified as high sensitivity to transmission power lines. Sensitive areas were concentrated within important migratory corridors and along coastlines. Hotspots of vulnerability to collision with wind turbines and transmission power lines (2018 data) were scattered across the study region with highest concentrations occurring in central Europe, near the strait of Gibraltar and the Bosporus in Turkey.4. Synthesis and applications. We identify the areas of Europe and North Africa that are most sensitive for the specific populations of birds for which sufficient GPS tracking data at high spatial resolution were available. We also map vulnerability hotspots where mitigation at existing EI should be prioritised to reduce collision risks. As tracking data availability improves our method could be applied to more species and areas to help reduce bird-EI conflicts. published

In this paper, we show how many fixes are enough to define the territory of two long-lived resident raptors marked by GPS transmitters. To this end, we analyzed high-resolution GPS data from 50 territorial Bonelli’s eagles (Aquila fasciata) and 9 territorial Golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) equipped with GPS/GSM dataloggers. Our results show that between 2200 and 2800 fixes are enough to define the territory. This is interesting for movement ecology works where long-term GPS data series are not available. This work was supported by Red Eléctrica de España, ACCIONA Eólica de Levante, Lafarge Holcim and the Wildlife Service of the Valencian Community regional government (Conselleria d'Agricultura, Desenvolupament Rural, Emergència Climàtica i Transició Ecològica, Generalitat Valenciana, Spain).

Carrion production is one of the most crucial yet neglected and understudied processes in food webs and ecosystems. In this study, we performed a large-scale estimation of the maximum potential production and spatial distribution of ungulate carrion biomass from five major sources in peninsular Spain, both anthropogenic (livestock, big game hunting, roadkills) and natural (predation, natural mortality). Using standardized ungulate carrion biomass (kg/year/100km2) estimates, we evaluated the relationship between ungulate carrion production and two ecosystem-level factors: global human modification (GHM) and primary productivity (NDVI). We found that anthropogenic carrion sources supplied about 60 times more ungulate carrion biomass than natural sources (mean = 90,172 vs. 1533 kg/year/100km2, respectively). Within anthropogenic carrion sources, livestock was by far the major carrion provider (91.1% of the annual production), followed by big game hunting (7.86%) and roadkills (0.05%). Within natural carrion sources, predation of ungulates provided more carrion (0.81%) than natural mortality (0.13%). Likewise, we found that the spatial distribution of carrion differed among carrion sources, with anthropogenic carrion being more aggregated in space than natural carrion. Our models showed that GHM was positively related to carrion production from livestock and roadkills, and that wild ungulate carrion supplied by natural sources and big game hunting was more frequently generated in more productive areas (higher NDVI). These findings indicate a disconnection between the main ungulate carrion source (livestock) and primary productivity. Ongoing socio-economic changes in developed countries (for example increase of intensive livestock husbandry and rewilding processes) could lead to additional alteration of carrion production processes, with potential negative impacts at the community and ecosystem levels. Overall, we highlight that carrion biomass quantification should be considered a crucial tool in evaluating ecosystem health and delineating efficient ecosystem management guidelines in the Anthropocene. JM was supported by a Basque Government predoctoral grant (PRE_2018_2_0112), ACA by a contract Juan de la Cierva Incorporación (IJCI-2014-20744; Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Spain) and a Post Doc contract Programa Viçent Mut of Govern Balear (PD/039/2017, Spain), MM by a Ramón y Cajal research contract from the MINECO (RYC-2015-19231), ZMR and LNA by contracts cofounded by the Generalitat Valenciana and the European Social Fund (APOSTD/2019/016 and ACIF/2019/056, respectively), and by a Ramón y Cajal research contract from the MINECO (RYC-2019-027216-I) and by the Generalitat Valenciana (SEJI/2018/024). This study was partially funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness and EU ERDF funds through the projects RTI2018-099609-B-C21, CIAGRO-UMH, and CGL2017-89905-R.

1. The knowledge about territoriality and space use by predators is a topic of great interest in the study of animal behavior and conservation biology. Examining the plasticity of territory limits, the topology and how territories can be modified depending on their owners is important to deepen into the behavior of territorial species. 2. Here, we analyzed the variations and tested the similarity of the home-range of individuals from the same territory using the data provided by 51 Bonelli's eagles from 22 different territories, tagged with GPS/GSM dataloggers in eastern Spain. 3. We analyzed the percentage of overlap of the annual home-range considering the 95% kernel density estimator between individuals of the same territory. Also, we analyzed the variation in the home range size according to three different kernel levels (95%, 75% and 50%) and the annual eccentricity of each individual home-range as a complementary metric to study the topology of territories across years. We also analyzed the changes in territory size and topology after the replacement of territory owners either by a single individual or by the entire pair. 4. Our results show that territories, regardless of the occupying members, have the same topology and extension and that their limits hardly vary across time. 5. Therefore, the identification and conservation of territories of large eagles regardless of their owners are key to ensuring species recovery in the long term, which is particularly important for endangered species such as the Bonelli’s eagle. Finally, our study highlights satellite telemetry's importance in further investigating the behavioral ecology and its conservation implications in large eagles.

Partial migration is one of the most widespread migratory strategies among taxa. Investigating the trade-off between environmental/social factors - fitness and energetic consequences – is essential to understand the coexistence of migratory and resident behaviours. Here, we compiled field monitoring data of wintering population size and telemetry data of 25 migrant and 14 resident Egyptian Vultures Neophron percnopterus to analyse how environmental and social factors modulate resident population size, compare fitness components (i.e., survival and reproduction), and energetic consequences between migratory and resident individuals across wintering and non-wintering seasons. We observed that food availability positively correlated with the wintering population size and that subadult birds increased linearly with censused adult birds. Residents exhibited higher survival probabilities, but lower breeding activity and higher energy expenditure, less flight efficiency, and lower activity due to shorter winter-day lengths. On the contrary, migratory birds showed lower survival but more breeding attempts but spent less energy and flew more efficiently at longer distances, benefitting from longer days in African wintering quarters. These results suggest that anthropogenic food mediated social attraction could modulate population dynamics and promote residency. Food availability may benefit resident individuals enhancing their survival which may offset higher energy expenditure. Migrant birds, on the contrary, may compensate for the higher costs in terms of survival by a reduction in the energy cost, which may benefit future breeding. Our results offer new insights to understand how species benefit from one strategy or another and that the coexistence of both migratory forms is context-dependent.

Islands are key areas for biodiversity; however, they are extremely sensitive to anthropic actions. This has led to local species extinctions, especially large predators such as raptors. Consequently, reintroduction and conservation projects aimed at reversing population decline of endangered species have recently gained popularity. Nevertheless, their relatively elevated cost and chance of failure make them controversial, hence assessing their effectiveness is essential. Within the early stages of raptors, the post-fledging dependency period (PFDP) is the one in which individuals must face dangers without having completely developed their skills. Thereby, comparing PFDP patterns concerning reintroduced and wild individuals is of major interest as it would help to plan and improve future conservation actions. We analyzed the behavior of 38 juvenile Bonelli’s eagles (15 reintroduced and 23 wild) tracked through GPS telemetry, tagged as nestlings in two insular environments. The study period encompassed a total of nine-year movement data from reintroduced chicks in Mallorca (Spain) and wild chicks from Sicily (Italy). Movement parameters (i.e., age of first flight, age of dispersal, length of the PFDP, revisits to the natal or release area, and residence time in them) were analyzed together with their behavior during the PFDP for reintroduced and wild individuals. Similar movement patterns were obtained for both origins, although wild individuals revisited the natal site more often and dispersed earlier. Behavior was also similar, it varied throughout the PFDP, observing a more abrupt progress in wild individuals and an earlier development of travelling and hunting behaviors. Observed differences are probably related to food availability, which can improve body condition and thus delay onset of dispersal, together with parental presence, which can prompt an earlier ending of the PFDP by encouraging juvenile independence.

Capsule Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos in Sardinia are clustered across the main mountain ranges of the island, with a preference for undisturbed and homogeneous inland habitats. Aims To analyse habitat preferences of the Golden Eagle in Sardinia, Italy, at the landscape and home range spatial scales. Methods Landscape scale habitat preferences were analysed using the 10 × 10 km Universal Transverse Mercator grid and the home range scale was based on the spatial distribution of breeding territories. Generalized linear models were fitted with three different sets of environmental predictors (topographic, bioclimatic and land use variables) to analyse the spatial distribution of Golden Eagles with a case-control design. Results Eagles showed a preference for rugged and elevated areas, characterized by a certain degree of humidity and surrounded by areas of forest. The distribution of Golden Eagles on this Mediterranean island was negatively affected by the occurrence of arable farmland and coastal areas, as well as by the effects of habitat fragmentation. Conclusions The results of this study could contribute to future management strategies and conservation projects aimed to protect this species, and may be used to identify the most suitable conservation areas for this and other competing species, such as the Bonelli's Eagle Aquila fasciata, which is currently the subject of a reintroduction project in Sardinia.

Partial migration, whereby some individuals migrate and some do not, is relatively common and widespread among animals. Switching between migration tactics (from migratory to resident or vice versa) occurs at individual and population levels. Here, we describe for the first time the movement ecology of the largest wintering population of Egyptian Vultures (Neophron percnopterus) in south-west Europe. We combined field surveys and GPS tracking data from December to February during four wintering seasons (2014–2018). The wintering population consisted on average of 85 individuals (range 58–121; 76% adults and 24% subadults). Individuals were counted at five different roosting sites located near farms, unauthorized carcass deposition sites and authorized carcass deposition sites. Our results show that vultures tend to remain close to the roosting site. Moreover, we observed that females exhibited smaller home range sizes than males, which suggests a possible differential use of food sources. Overall, birds relied more on farms than other available food resources, particularly subadult individuals which exploited more intensively these sites. Our results showed that Egyptian Vultures congregate in significant numbers at specific sites throughout the winter period in south-west Spain and that these roosting and feeding sites should be given some level of legal protection and regular monitoring. Furthermore, predictable food sources might be driving the apparent increase in the non-migratory population of Egyptian Vultures, as observed in other avian species which are also changing their migratory behavior.

Capsule: In Egyptian Vultures Neophron percnopterus, both sexes invested similar parental effort throughout the breeding period. However, there was variation in the degree of intensity of parental ...

Human-wildlife conflicts are the object of raising concern in conservation biology. People living in urban areas are rapidly increasing worldwide and consequently the temporal pattern of occupation of natural areas for recreation is changing as well, resulting in an ever-increasing concentration of people during weekends and holidays. This is particularly evident in affluent societies, where more recreationists visit natural areas on holidays and weekends, causing disturbance to wildlife in the so-called “weekend effect”. Here, we tested the response to disturbance of 30 Bonelli's eagles tracked by high-frequency GPS/GSM telemetry. We analysed daily home-range size, a measure of changing behaviour that integrates their vital requirements, throughout the annual cycle, considering three different levels (95%, 75% and 50% kernel density estimators). Our results showed that eagles made a higher ranging effort on weekends and holidays throughout the annual cycle. This was particularly evident during the non-breeding period, when larger home-ranges were observed. Higher ranging effort can lead to conservation problems such as extra energy expenditure, hunting interference, and eventually nest and/or territory abandonment, decreasing eagles' fitness. Measures aimed at reducing human-wildlife conflicts including spatio-temporal limitation of leisure activities particularly during the most critical periods (i.e., incubation, chick rearing) are urgently needed. Finally, where possible, high quality information of animal movement should be incorporated into conservation plans in order to delineate efficient spatially-explicit management measures. Red Eléctrica de España (Spain) and Iberdrola Foundation (Spain) provided financial support for this project.

1. Long‐distance migrations are among the most physically demanding feats animals perform. Understanding the potential costs and benefits of such behaviour is a fundamental question in ecology and evolution. A hypothetical cost of migration should be outweighed by higher productivity and/or higher annual survival, but few studies on migratory species have been able to directly quantify patterns of survival throughout the full annual cycle and across the majority of a species’ range. 2. Here, we use telemetry data from 220 migratory Egyptian vultures Neophron percnopterus, tracked for 3,186 bird months and across approximately 70% of the species’ global distribution, to test for differences in survival throughout the annual cycle. 3. We estimated monthly survival probability relative to migration and latitude using a multi‐event capture–recapture model in a Bayesian framework that accounted for age, origin, subpopulation and the uncertainty of classifying fates from tracking data. 4. We found lower survival during migration compared to stationary periods (β = −0.816; 95% credible interval: −1.290 to −0.318) and higher survival on non‐breeding grounds at southern latitudes (

Cutting-edge technologies are extremely useful to develop new workflows in studying ecological data, particularly to understand animal behavior and movement trajectories at the individual level. Although parental care is a well-studied phenomenon, most studies have been focused on direct observational or video recording data, as well as experimental manipulation. Therefore, what happens out of our sight still remains unknown. Using high-frequency GPS/GSM dataloggers and tri-axial accelerometers we monitored 25 Bonelli’s eagles Aquila fasciata during the breeding season to understand parental activities from a broader perspective. We used recursive data, measured as number of visits and residence time, to reveal nest attendance patterns of biparental care with role specialization between sexes. Accelerometry data interpreted as the overall dynamic body acceleration, a proxy of energy expenditure, showed strong differences in parental effort throughout the breeding season and between sexes. Thereby, males increased substantially their energetic requirements, due to the increased workload, while females spent most of the time on the nest. Furthermore, during critical phases of the breeding season, a low percentage of suitable hunting spots in eagles’ territories led them to increase their ranging behavior in order to find food, with important consequences in energy consumption and mortality risk. Our results highlight the crucial role of males in raptor species exhibiting biparental care. Finally, we exemplify how biologging technologies are an adequate and objective method to study parental care in raptors as well as to get deeper insight into breeding ecology of birds in general. This work was supported by Red Eléctrica de España, Iberdrola Foundation, and Wildlife Service of the Valencian Community Regional Government (Conselleria d’Agricultura, Desenvolupament Rural, Emergència Climàtica i Transició Ecològica, Generalitat Valenciana, Spain). A.M.P. and J.M.E. were supported by predoctoral grants of the University of Valencia [Grant Number 0113/2019] and the Basque Government [Grant Number PRE_2018_2_0112], respectively.

Cosmetic coloration is not a common phenomenon among bird species. Adult Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus typically show orange coloration in head, chest, belly and tarsus feathers that is the result of mud baths in ferruginous substrates. Several non-mutually exclusive visual signalling hypotheses can be proposed to explain this phenomenon. Coloration could be used to signal: (1) dominance towards conspecifics, with darker birds being dominant (status signalling hypothesis); (2) sex (gender signalling hypothesis) because females are usually more intensely coloured; (3) individual quality for mate choice (quality signalling hypothesis); or (4) different reproductive strategies between individuals (e.g. in polyandrous trios). Here we report results from systematic monitoring of breeding Bearded Vultures in the pre-laying period in the central and western Pyrenees (Spain and France) between 2016 and 2020, including 162 individuals from 70 reproductive units (48 pairs and 22 trios). We classified individuals as being white, pale, medium or dark, and analysed the relationship with sex, mating system (pair or trios) and average productivity across years. Our results showed that the most common form was medium (67%), then pale (22%), dark (9%) and white (2%) morphs. Overall, females were darker than males, but with a large overlap in coloration. In trios, dominant males were darker than subordinate males, although differences were not statistically significant. The mating system (pair or trio) did not influence female coloration. A multimodel comparison showed that the number of years of territory occupation, mating system and their combination (but not coloration) were the best predictors of average productivity. Our results do not support the gender signalling hypothesis. The reproductive strategy signalling hypothesis might be supported because beta males were, on average, paler than males in pairs, but this topic requires further investigations because our results were inconclusive. Finally, that females (thought to be dominant because of their slightly larger size) were on average darker than males agrees with the status signalling hypothesis, although an experimental approach would be needed to formally test this hypothesis.

The Tawny Owl (Strix aluco) is the most abundant nocturnal raptor in Europe. It has been thoroughly studied in various regions, but its habitat preferences in Mediterranean environments remain poorly understood. With the aim to present novel information about this aspect of the ecology of the Tawny Owl, we established 115 survey stations in the Special Conservancy Area 'Sierras de Talayuelas y Aliaguilla' (Castilla-La Mancha region, eastern Spain) and carried out nocturnal surveys by recording spontaneous calls and vocal responses to call playbacks. We then assessed environmental characteristics (vegetation types, soil type, altitude, potential competitors, and anthropic disturbance) in areas where owls were detected or not detected during the breeding season. Overall, we detected 60 responding owls at 49 survey stations during breeding season in the study area (i.e., density 1.22 owls/km2). We found that Tawny Owls preferred lower altitudes and patchy heterogeneous areas. Owls seemed to avoid natural grasslands and areas characterized by limestone soils and associated vegetation, and preferred areas characterized by clay soils and associated vegetation. Interestingly, we did not detect owls close to wind farms, which seem to create a buffer effect on owls' occurrence. The noise generated by the turbines might be a limiting factor that could account for this avoidance. Our multivariate results showed that Tawny Owls preferred heterogeneous patchy habitat but avoided non-irrigated arable land. Tawny Owls inhabit Mediterranean landscapes where conditions are favorable, but human activities such as wind farms may limit their distribution. Additional research is needed to determine the drivers of this avoidance and whether Tawny Owls also avoid wind farms in other regions of their range.

Timing of activity can reveal an organism's efforts to optimize foraging either by minimizing energy loss through passive movement or by maximizing energetic gain through foraging. Here, we assess whether signals of either of these strategies are detectable in the timing of activity of daily, local movements by birds. We compare the similarities of timing of movement activity among species using six temporal variables: start of activity relative to sunrise, end of activity relative to sunset, relative speed at midday, number of movement bouts, bout duration and proportion of active daytime hours. We test for the influence of flight mode and foraging habitat on the timing of movement activity across avian guilds. We used 64 570 days of GPS movement data collected between 2002 and 2019 for local (non‐migratory) movements of 991 birds from 49 species, representing 14 orders. Dissimilarity among daily activity patterns was best explained by flight mode. Terrestrial soaring birds began activity later and stopped activity earlier than pelagic soaring or flapping birds. Broad‐scale foraging habitat explained less of the clustering patterns because of divergent timing of active periods of pelagic surface and diving foragers. Among pelagic birds, surface foragers were active throughout all 24 hrs of the day while diving foragers matched their active hours more closely to daylight hours. Pelagic surface foragers also had the greatest daily foraging distances, which was consistent with their daytime activity patterns. This study demonstrates that flight mode and foraging habitat influence temporal patterns of daily movement activity of birds. We thank the Nature Conservancy, the Bailey Wildlife Foundation, the Bluestone Foundation, the Ocean View Foundation, Biodiversity Research Institute, the Maine Outdoor Heritage Fund, the Davis Conservation Foundation and The U.S. Department of Energy (DE‐EE0005362), and the Darwin Initiative (19-026), EDP S.A. ‘Fundação para a Biodiversidade’ and the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) (DL57/2019/CP 1440/CT 0021), Enterprise St Helena (ESH), Friends of National Zoo Conservation Research Grant Program and Conservation Nation, ConocoPhillips Global Signature Program, Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Cellular Tracking Technologies and Hawk Mountain Sanctuary for providing funding and in-kind support for the GPS data used in our analyses.

We report the first cases of polygyny for the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the central Pyrenees, Spain. Although polyandry is frequent in the study area (31.8% of all reproductive units in 2016), we only observed the occurrence of three cases of polygyny over the period 1994–2017. Polygyny in Bearded Vultures is possibly a consequence of habitat saturation.

Esta monografía constituye la quinta publicación técnica del programa Migra de SEO/BirdLife (www. migraciondeaves.org)., [ES]: Esta publicación trata sobre la ecología del movimiento de la cigüeña blanca (Ciconia ciconia) a lo largo de todo el ciclo anual: temporadas de cría y de invernada y ambas migraciones entre estas zonas. Se trata de la quinta monografía del programa Migra (www.migraciondeaves.org) desarrollado por SEO/BirdLife desde 2011, cuyo objetivo es conocer los movimientos y la migración de las aves presentes en España, y que para el estudio de esta especie ha contado con la colaboración de la organización suiza Storch Schweiz, la Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), el Instituto MaxPlanck de Ornitología en Radolfzell (Alemania) y el Grupo SaBio del IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM). La cigüeña blanca es un ave de gran tamaño, muy planeadora y que depende de las corrientes térmicas para el vuelo. Hasta hace relativamente poco tiempo, era considerada un migrador transahariano obligado que solo se observaba en territorio ibérico durante la época de reproducción. Sin embargo, en las últimas décadas está cambiando su comportamiento migratorio, y en la actualidad se cuenta con un importante número de aves que invernan en España, tanto aves nativas invernantes como ejemplares de origen centroeuropeo. Durante la migración transahariana la península Ibérica representa un área de paso obligado para las cigüeñas blancas de Europa Occidental y centroeuropeas, que viajan hasta el área de Gibraltar para cruzar el Estrecho entre finales de agosto y septiembre, más tarde que las aves ibéricas. Una vez en África continúan la migración atravesando el desierto del Sahara hasta llegar al Sahel, donde se encuentra la principal área de invernada de la población occidental. En España, la población reproductora se distribuye fundamentalmente en la mitad occidental de la Península y en el valle del Ebro. Además, cría en Galicia y en localidades aisladas de la fachada cantábrica, pero falta en grandes áreas de la costa mediterránea y este de la meseta. El último censo nacional corresponde a 2004, cuando el tamaño de la población reproductora española se cifró en 33.217 parejas reproductoras y 31.229 ejemplares invernando., [EN]: The present publication describes the movement ecology of white storks (Ciconia ciconia) across the complete annual cycle: breeding and wintering seasons, and both migratory periods between wintering and breeding grounds. It is the fifth monograph published in the context of the Migra program (www.migraciondeaves.org/en/) run by SEO/BirdLife since 2011 in order to describe the movements and migratory routes of the avian species present in Spain. For this particular species SEO/BirdLife has received collaboration from the Swiss non-governmental organization Storch Schweiz, the Doñana Biological Research Station (EBD-CSIC), the Max-Planck Institute of Ornithology in Radolfzell (Germany), and the Health and Biotechnology Research Group of the Spanish Institute of Game and Wildlife Research (IREC, CSIC-UCLM-JCCM). The white stork is a large conspicuous soaring bird that depends on thermals and air currents for its flights. Until recently it was considered an obligatory trans-Saharan migrant that was only present in the Iberian Peninsula during the breeding season. However the white storks’ migratory behaviour has been changing throughout the past decades and at present a large number of birds winter in Spain, both native resident storks and birds from Central Europe that spend the winter in Spanish territory. During trans-Saharan migration the Iberian Peninsula constitutes an obligatory part of the route of white storks of Western and Central Europe that travel to Gibraltar and cross the strait between the end of August and September, later than storks from the Peninsula. Once in Africa these birds travel onwards crossing the Sahara to reach the Sahel zone, as sub-Saharan Africa is the primary wintering area of the western white stork population. In Spain the breeding population of white storks occupies predominantly the western half of the Iberian Peninsula and the Ebro river valley. In addition, they breed in Galicia and in the Cantabria part of the Atlantic coast, but are absent in large parts of the Mediterranean and the Eastern plateau. The most recent national census from 2004 noted 33,217 breeding pairs and 33,229 wintering individuals., Los datos recogidos en esta monografía se obtuvieron gracias a la financiación obtenida en el marco de los siguientes proyectos: • El Gobierno de La Rioja financió el marcado con emisor satélite GPS de un adulto de cigüeña blanca en La Rioja. • El Ayuntamiento de Vitoria-Gasteiz en el entorno de la “Green Capital”, el Gobierno Vasco y la Diputación Foral de Álava hicieron posible el trabajo de captura y marcaje de un adulto de cigüeña blanca en Álava. • Once de las cigüeñas adultas fueron marcadas con transmisor satélite en el marco de un proyecto para la determinación del papel de la cigüeña blanca en la epidemiología de los virus de influenza aviar de alta y baja patogenicidad, financiado por el Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (proyecto RTA2011-00088-C03-02), y desarrollado por el Grupo SaBio del IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM). • El trabajo en el área de Doñana fue financiado por el Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad y la Comunidad Europea (proyecto CGL2012-32544 concedido a J. Blas), el Ministerio de Agricultura, Alimentación y Medio Ambiente (Organismo Autónomo Parques Nacionales, subvención 511/2012 a J. Blas), la Universidad de Saskatchewan (beca Isabel María López Martínez Memorial concedida a F.T-M), y el Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas CSIC (contrato Ramón y Cajal 2010-07120 y proyecto I-LINK0564 a J. Blas). Estos proyectos permitieron financiar y reforzar las colaboraciones científicas entre la Estación Biológica de Doñana y el Instituto Max-Planck de Ornitología en Radolfzell (Alemania) para el estudio de la ecología de las cigüeñas en el sur de España. • La organización suiza Storch Schweiz ha financiado el marcaje de numerosas cigüeñas blancas en España y Centroeuropa dentro del proyecto conjunto “SOS Cigüeña-Migración en cambio” entre esta entidad y SEO/BirdLife. Los trabajos de captura, marcaje y seguimiento de las aves, y las labores de edición y maquetación de esta publicación se han llevado a cabo en el marco de este programa, cuyo principal financiador es la Fundación Iberdrola España.

Aim: Animal movement is an important determinant of individual survival, population dynamics and ecosystem structure and function. Nonetheless, it is still unclear how local movements are related to resource availability and the spatial arrangement of resources. Using resident bird species and migratory bird species outside the migratory period, we examined how the distribution of resources affects the movement patterns of both large terrestrial birds (e.g., raptors, bustards and hornbills) and waterbirds (e.g., cranes, storks, ducks, geese and flamingos). Location: Global. Time period: 2003–2015. Major taxa studied: Birds. Methods: We compiled GPS tracking data for 386 individuals across 36 bird species. We calculated the straight‐line distance between GPS locations of each individual at the 1‐hr and 10‐day time‐scales. For each individual and time‐scale, we calculated the median and 0.95 quantile of displacement. We used linear mixed‐effects models to examine the effect of the spatial arrangement of resources, measured as enhanced vegetation index homogeneity, on avian movements, while accounting for mean resource availability, body mass, diet, flight type, migratory status and taxonomy and spatial autocorrelation. Results: We found a significant effect of resource spatial arrangement at the 1‐hr and 10‐day time‐scales. On average, individual movements were seven times longer in environments with homogeneously distributed resources compared with areas of low resource homogeneity. Contrary to previous work, we found no significant effect of resource availability, diet, flight type, migratory status or body mass on the non‐migratory movements of birds. Main conclusions: We suggest that longer movements in homogeneous environments might reflect the need for different habitat types associated with foraging and reproduction. This highlights the importance of landscape complementarity, where habitat patches within a landscape include a range of different, yet complementary resources. As habitat homogenization increases, it might force birds to travel increasingly longer distances to meet their diverse needs. National Trust for Scotland; Penguin Foundation; The U.S. Department of Energy, Grant/Award Number: DE-EE0005362; Australian Research Council; NASA's Arctic Boreal Vulnerability Experiment (ABoVE), Grant/Award Number: NNX15AV92A; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research, Grant/Award Number: VIDI 864.10.006; BCC; NSF Award, Grant/Award Number: ABI-1458748; U.K. Department for Energy and Climate Change; ‘Juan de la Cierva ‐ Incorporación’ postdoctoral grant; Irish Research Council, Grant/Award Number: GOIPD/2015/81 ; DECC; Goethe International Postdoctoral Programme, People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme FP7/2007‐2013/ under REA grant agreement no [291776]; German Aerospace Center Award, Grant/Award Number: 50JR1601; Scottish Natural Heritage; Solway Coast AONB Sustainable Development Fund; COWRIE Ltd.; Heritage Lottery Fund; Robert Bosch Stiftung; NSF Division of Biological Infrastructure Award, Grant/Award Number: 1564380; Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Grant/Award Number: IJCI-2014-19190; Energinet.dk; NASA Award, Grant/Award Number: NNX15AV92A; MAVA Foundation; Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia, Grant/Award Number: SFRH/BPD/118635/2016; National Key R&D Program of China, Grant/Award Number: 2016YFC0500406; Green Fund of the Greek Ministry of Environment

Wind is among the most important environmental factors shaping birds’ migration patterns. Birds must deal with the displacement caused by crosswinds and their behavior can vary according to different factors such as flight mode, migratory season, experience, and distance to goal areas. Here we analyze the relationship between wind and migratory movements of three raptor species which migrate by soaring–gliding flight: Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus, booted eagle Aquila pennata, and short-toed snake eagle Circaetus gallicus. We analyzed daily migratory segments (i.e., the path joining consecutive roosting locations) using data recorded by GPS satellite telemetry. Daily movements of Egyptian vultures and booted eagles were significantly affected by tailwinds during both autumn and spring migrations. In contrast, daily movements of short-toed eagles were only significantly affected by tailwinds during autumn migration. The effect of crosswinds was significant in all cases. Interestingly, Egyptian vultures and booted eagles showed latitudinal differences in their behavior: both species compensated more frequently at the onset of autumn migration and, at the end of the season when reaching their wintering areas, the proportion of drift segments was higher. In contrast, there was a higher drift at the onset of spring migration and a higher compensation at the end. Our results highlight the effect of wind patterns on the migratory routes of soaring raptors, with different outcomes in relation to species, season, and latitude, ultimately shaping the loop migration patterns that current tracking techniques are showing to be widespread in many long distance migrants. The “Servicio de Biodiversidad” (Generalitat Valenciana) funded part of this project. Tracking of booted eagle has been made within the “Migra” project (www.migraciondeaves.org/en/) developed by SEO/BirdLife and financed by Iberdrola Foundation. Tracking of Italian individuals was funded by Gallipoli Cognato Piccole Dolomiti Lucane Regional Park. P.L.-L. is supported by a “Juan de la Cierva” postdoctoral grant of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (reference JCI-2011-09588).

Monitoring programs of long-lived and elusive species often incur high costs in terms of field effort and economical budget, but both components are often considered separately. Also, there is scant information on the use of reliable detectability estimates under imperfect detection conditions based on environmental factors, which is key to accurately estimate financial costs and define optimum monitoring strategies. In this study, we use an intensive survey program (2017–2018) of the Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus population in Bizkaia (northern Spain) to model detectability at nests taking into account imperfect detection. Our main goal is to estimate both the number and timing of surveys, and the allocation of survey effort/costs, in order to design cost-effective monitoring programs. Firstly, throughout the breeding seasons, we used focal sampling methods on 19 nesting territories historically occupied by the study species. Then, we employed single-season occupancy models to assess detectability considering different levels of effort (from 1 to 5 h) at each nest, including both species breeding phenology and environmental covariates that could modify detection probabilities. Our results showed that the species was more likely to be detected in dry years and when the nest was visible during the nestling period, investing five hours of the survey. The optimal number of monitoring days required to account for 95% of false negatives for a single nest was eight days, investing one hour per breeding stage. The optimal monitoring cost was reached in dry years when the nest was visible, investing one hour per breeding stage (ca. 242 €/nest). The cost of monitoring was highest in rainy years when the nest was not visible (ca. 1954 €/nest). The cost of monitoring entire occupied nesting territories without accounting for covariates was of 23,294 € (n = 19). In order to offer reliable species assessments, design rigorous surveys and accurately estimate monitoring costs, studies should account for imperfect detection, particularly for long-lived vertebrates. Here, we show that monitoring programs ought to (a) consider the effort necessary to detect the species while accounting for species-specific breeding ecology and, (b) adjust field effort based on lower costs and environmental conditions. Our results provide simple and practical guidelines for the efficient allocation of human and economic resources, which could be of interest to those practitioners involved in the regular monitoring of elusive species.

El seguimiento a largo plazo de las aves amenazadas es esencial para estimar las tendencias poblacionales e identificar las posibles causas de declive, siendo particularmente importante en el caso de las aves alpinas que habitan en areas montanosas en los limites de su area de distribucion. Analizamos la tendencia poblacional del urogallo en los Pirineos centrales espanoles a partir de investigaciones realizadas entre 2000 y 2017. Encontramos un declive significativo de la poblacion (alrededor del 58%) en el numero de aves contadas en las areas de exhibicion (lek). la mayoria de los urogallos habitan bosques de coniferas de pino negro con una cobertura elevada de arandano y rododendro en el sotobosque. El numero de machos disminuyo mas rapidamente a altitudes mas bajas y en orientaciones mas expuestas, en un escenario consistente con la tasa diferencial de perdida de calidad del habitat debido al cambio climatico. Nuestra hipotesis es que una de las principales causas del declive del urogallo podria ser un bajo exito reproductivo (productividad media anual de 0,67 pollos por hembra). A la luz de las tasas de disminucion observadas, deberia cambiarse la categoria del Catalogo Espanol de Especies Amenazadas de Vulnerable a En Peligro de Extincion. Esta consideracion de un mayor grado de proteccion legal deberia garantizar la adopcion de medidas de gestion para revertir o desacelerar la tendencia general de declive de la especie en el sur de su area de distribucion

Although some of these hypotheses are not mutually exclusive, in light of our field observations and experience with both species in the study area, we would favor the first hypothesis as food availability is low in our study area (P. López-López, C. García-Ripollés, J. Giménez, and V. Urios unpubl. data). The second and third hypotheses could also account for this behavior, especially considering previous events of nestling Bonelli's Eagles being killed by eagle-owls (Real and Manosa 1990). Notwithstanding, if the''predatorremoval hypothesis'' were true, the frequency of lethal interactions among both species would be probably much higher and thus previously reported in the literature. Unfortunately, we cannot rule out the fourth hypothesis, as the eagle-owl was partially consumed and hence we were unable to determine information about its body condition.

Made available in DSpace on 2018-11-26T17:44:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2018-01-26 Robert Bosch Foundation Animal movement is fundamental for ecosystem functioning and species survival, yet the effects of the anthropogenic footprint on animal movements have not been estimated across species. Using a unique GPS-tracking database of 803 individuals across 57 species, we found that movements of mammals in areas with a comparatively high human footprint were on average one-half to one-third the extent of their movements in areas with a low human footprint. We attribute this reduction to behavioral changes of individual animals and to the exclusion of species with long-range movements from areas with higher human impact. Global loss of vagility alters a key ecological trait of animals that affects not only population persistence but also ecosystem processes such as predator-prey interactions, nutrient cycling, and disease transmission. Senckenberg Gesell Naturforsch, Senckenberg Biodivers & Climate Res Ctr, D-60325 Frankfurt, Main, Germany Goethe Univ, Dept Biol Sci, D-60438 Frankfurt, Main, Germany Univ Maryland, Dept Biol, College Pk, MD 20742 USA Univ Maryland, SESYNC, Annapolis, MD 21401 USA Univ Guelph, Dept Integrat Biol, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada Norwegian Inst Nat Res, POB 5685 Torgard, NO-7485 Trondheim, Norway Duke Univ, Dept Biol, Durham, NC 27708 USA Duke Univ, Dept Evolut Anthropol, Durham, NC 27708 USA Hirola Conservat Programme, Garissa, Kenya Swedish Univ Agr Sci, Dept Wildlife Fish & Environm Studies, S-90183 Umea, Sweden Radboud Univ Nijmegen, Dept Anim Ecol & Physiol, Inst Water & Wetland Res, NL-6500 GL Nijmegen, Netherlands Univ Fed Mato Grosso do Sul, Ecol & Conservat Grad Program, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil Univ Alberta, Dept Biol Sci, Edmonton, AB, Canada Univ London, Royal Vet Coll, Struct & Motion Lab, London NW1 0TU, England Wildlife Conservat Soc, Mongolia Program, Ulaanbaatar, Mongol Peo Rep Mississippi State Univ, Forest & Wildlife Res Ctr, Carnivore Ecol Lab, Box 9690, Mississippi State, MS USA Sao Paulo State Univ, Anim Biol Postgra Program, BR-15054000 Sao Jose Do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil Michigan Dept Nat Resources, 1990 US 41 South, Marquette, MI 49855 USA Univ Calif Davis, Dept Anthropol, Davis, CA 95616 USA Aarhus Univ, Dept Biosci, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark Max Planck Inst Ornithol, Vogelwarte Radolfzell, D-78315 Radolfzell am Bodensee, Germany Wildlife Conservat Soc, Bronx, NY 10460 USA Univ Potsdam, Plant Ecol & Nat Conservat, D-14476 Potsdam, Germany Middle Tennessee State Univ, Dept Biol, Murfreesboro, TN 37132 USA Univ Pretoria, Dept Zool & Entomol, Mammal Res Inst, ZA-0028 Gauteng, South Africa Fdn Edmund Mach, Res & Innovat Ctr, Dept Biodivers & Mol Ecol, I-38010 San Michele All Adige, TN, Italy Harvard Univ, Dept Organism & Evolutionary Biol, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA Natl Zool Pk, Smithsonian Conservat Biol Inst, Front Royal, VA USA Univ Evora, Depat Fitotecn, P-7002554 Evora, Portugal Univ Evora, ICAAM, Inst Mediterranean Agr & Environm Sci, Evora, Portugal Univ Montpellier, Univ Paul Valery Montpellier, CNRS,EPHE, Ctr Ecol Fonctionnelle & Evolut,UMR 5175, F-34293 Montpellier 5, France Phillip Isl Nat Parks, Cowes, Vic, Australia Monash Univ, Sch Biol Sci, Melbourne, Vic, Australia Ohio State Univ, Dept Civil Environm & Geodet Engn, Columbus, OH 43210 USA Fiji Natl Univ, Dept Biol, POB 5529, Natabua, Lautoka, Fiji Univ Massachusetts, US Geol Survey, Massachusetts Cooperat Fish & Wildlife Res Unit, Amherst, MA 01003 USA Penn State Univ, US Geol Survey, Penn Cooperat Fish & Wildlife Res Unit, University Pk, PA 16802 USA Univ Oxford, Dept Zool, Oxford OX1 3PS, England Giraffe Conservat Fdn, POB 86099, Eros, Namibia German Primate Ctr, Behav Ecol & Sociobiol Unit, D-37077 Gottingen, Germany Tech Univ Munich, Dept Ecol & Ecosyst Management, Restorat Ecol, D-85354 Freising Weihenstephan, Germany Cary Inst Ecosyst Studies, Millbrook, NY 12545 USA Univ British Columbia, Irving K Barber Sch Arts & Sci, Unit 2, Biol, Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada Univ Zurich, Dept Evolutionary Biol & Environm Studies, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland Univ Wyoming, Dept Zool & Physiol, Laramie, WY 82071 USA Univ Washington, Sch Environm & Forest Sci, Seattle, WA 98195 USA Univ Montana, Coll Forestry & Conservat, Dept Ecosyst & Conservat Sci, Wildlife Biol Program, Missoula, MT 59812 USA Bavarian Forest Natl Pk, Dept Conservat & Res, D-94481 Grafenau, Germany Albert Ludwigs Univ Freiburg, Wildlife Ecol & Management, D-79106 Freiburg, Germany Univ Toulouse, INRA, CEFS, Castanet Tolosan, France Univ Calif Davis, Anim Behav Grad Grp, Davis, CA 95616 USA Bionet Natr Onderzoek, NL-6171 EL Stein, Netherlands Univ Vet Med Vienna, Res Inst Wildlife Ecol, A-1160 Vienna, Austria Univ Coll Cork, Sch Biol Earth & Environm Sci, Cork, Ireland Univ Wyoming, US Geol Survey, Dept Zool & Physiol, Wyoming Cooperat Fish & Wildlife Res Unit, Laramie, WY USA North Carolina Museum Nat Sci, Raleigh, NC 27601 USA North Carolina State Univ, Dept Forestry & Environm Resources, Raleigh, NC 27695 USA Karatina Univ, Dept Nat Resource Management, POB 195710101, Karatina, Kenya Univ Lethbridge, Dept Psychol, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada Columbia Univ, Lamont Doherty Earth Observ, Palisades, NY 10964 USA Univ Valencia, Terr Vertebrates Grp, Cavanilles Inst Biodivers & Evolutionary Biol, E-46980 Valencia, Spain SUNY Stony Brook, Dept Anthropol, Stony Brook, NY 11794 USA TSG, SSC, IUCN, Rua Licuala 622,Damha 1,Campo Grande, BR-79046150 Mato Grosso Sul, Brazil IPE Inst Pesquisas Ecol Inst Ecol Res, Caixa Postal 47, BR-12960000 Sao Paulo, Brazil Univ Alicante, Dept Ciencias Ambient & Recursos Natur, Vertebrates Zool Res Grp, Alicante, Spain Embrapa Pantanal, BR-79320900 Corumba, MS, Brazil Chico Mendes Inst Conservat Biodivers, Natl Res Ctr Carnivores Conservat, BR-12952011 Atiba, SP, Brazil Univ Glasgow, Inst Biodivers Anim Hlth & Comparat Med, Glasgow, Lanark, Scotland NYU, Dept Biol, Ctr Genom & Syst Biol, New York, NY 10003 USA Univ Calif Davis, Dept Microbiol & Mol Genet, Davis, CA 95616 USA Univ Oslo, Dept Biosci, Ctr Ecol & Evolutionary Synth, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway Hebrew Univ Jerusalem, Alexander Silberman Inst Life Sci, Dept Ecol Evolut & Behav, Movement Ecol Lab, IL-91904 Jerusalem, Israel Norwegian Inst Nat Res, NO-0349 Oslo, Norway Norwegian Univ Sci & Technol NTNU, Dept Math Sci & Ctr Biodivers Dynam, N-7491 Trondheim, Norway Univ Fed Mato Grosso do Sul, Dept Ecol, BR-79070900 Campo Grande, MS, Brazil Field Museum Nat Hist, Integrat Res Ctr, Chicago, IL 60605 USA Consorzio Parco Nazl Stelvio, Bormio, Sondrio, Italy Univ Grenoble Alpes, Irstea, UR LESSEM, BP 76, F-38402 St Martin Dheres, France Univ Bayreuth, BayCEER, D-95447 Bayreuth, Germany Natl Park Schwarzwald, D-77889 Seebach, Germany Univ New South Wales, Evolut & Ecol Res Ctr, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia Univ New South Wales, Sch Biol Earth & Environm Sci, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia Penn Game Commiss, Harrisburg, PA 17110 USA Princeton Univ, Dept Ecol & Evolutionary Biol, Princeton, NJ 08544 USA Univ Konstanz, Dept Biol, D-78467 Constance, Germany Off Natl Chasse & Faune Sauvage, Studies & Expertise DRE, F-01330 Birieux, France Univ Haifa, Dept Evolutionary & Environm Biol, IL-3498838 Haifa, Israel Western Ecosyst Technol Inc, Laramie, WY 82070 USA Aarhus Univ, Arctic Res Ctr, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark Polish Acad Sci, Inst Nat Conservat, PL-31120 Krakow, Poland Univ Porto, CIBIO InBIO Associate Lab, P-4485661 Vairao, Portugal Univ Lisbon, Inst Super Agron, InBIO Associate Lab, Ctr Appl Ecol Prof Baeta Neves, P-1349017 Lisbon, Portugal Univ Lisbon, Fac Ciencias, Ctr Ecol Evolut & Environm Changes, P-1749016 Lisbon, Portugal Univ Calif Davis, Dept Environm Sci & Policy, Davis, CA 95616 USA Jackson Hole Conservat, Jackson, WY 83001 USA Univ Vet Med Hannover, Inst Terr & Aquat Wildlife Res, D-30173 Hannover, Germany Univ Calif Santa Cruz, Environm Studies Dept, Ctr Integrated Spatial Res, Santa Cruz, CA 95060 USA Univ Pretoria, Dept Zool & Entomol, ZA-0028 Hatfield, South Africa Colorado State Univ, Dept Fish Wildlife & Conservat Biol, Ft Collins, CO 80523 USA Tatra Natl Pk, PL-34500 Zakopane, Poland Sao Paulo State Univ, Anim Biol Postgra Program, BR-15054000 Sao Jose Do Rio Preto, SP, Brazil

Birds of prey, as top predators, play a key role in ecosystem functioning by regulating prey populations and, by means of cascade effects, promoting biodiversity. This makes them adequate sentinels of ecosystem health. Here we analyse the relationship between the occurrence of breeding short-toed snake eagle (Circaetus gallicus) and both the richness of potential prey species and landscape characteristics by taking into account two different spatial scales (i.e. nest-site scale and landscape scale). The short-toed snake eagle offers an interesting case study for investigating the relationships between top predators, prey diversity, and habitats, because it is an extremely specialised raptor that feeds on mesopredators, mostly snakes. Additionally, short-toed snake eagles are mainly threatened by changes in agriculture and land use in Europe, which have reduced the extent of suitable hunting habitats, and by the decrease in snake populations. Our study was conducted in the Latium Region (central Italy) in 2007, where most of the Italian breeding population is concentrated. By means of habitat selection analyses using generalised linear models, our results showed that the species selected breeding areas characterised by low elevations, rugged slopes, and high snake species richness at the nest-site scale (1 km2 ). At the landscape scale (25 km2), the best model showed that birds selected areas characterised by lower elevations for nesting, with a tendency towards intermediate values of wood cover and high snake species richness. Our study highlights the strong relationship between snake species richness and the occurrence of breeding eagles at both spatial scales, with optimal breeding sites located closer to hunting areas than expected by chance. This study provides further support for the role of short-toed snake eagles as sentinel species for Mediterranean habitats, and highlights the link between the location of nesting sites and the occurrence of human-modified landscapes characterised by high prey richness.

Moult is an extremely time-consuming and energy-demanding task for large birds. In addition, there is a trade-off between the time devoted to moulting and that invested in other activities such as breeding and/or territory exploration. Moreover, it takes a long time to grow a long feather in large birds, and large birds that need to fly while moulting cannot tolerate large gaps in the wing, but only one or two simultaneously growing feathers. As a consequence, large birds take several years to complete a full moult cycle, and they resume the moult process during suboptimal conditions. A clear example of this pattern is the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), which needs 2-3 years for changing all flight feathers. Here we describe the sequence, extent, and timing of moult of 124 Bearded Vultures in detail for the first time. We found that extent and timing of flight feather moult was different between age classes. Subadults (from 3rd to 5th calendar year) started moult, on average, in early March, whereas adults only started moult, on average, in late April, possibly due to breeding requirements. Second calendar year individuals delayed onset of moult until the middle of May. In general, the moult lasted until November, and although adults started to moult later than subadults, they moulted more feathers. Subadults needed 3 years for moulting all flight feathers, whereas adults normally completed it in 2 years.

We present data on home range sizes and spatial parameters of six non-breeding bearded vultures Gypaetus barbatus (one adult, four subadults and one juvenile) using Argos satellite telemetry in the Pyrenees (Spain-France) between 1999 and 2006. None of the birds left the Pyrenees during the tracking period and all individuals included supplementary feeding stations (SFS) in their home ranges. Home range areas reported here were smaller than those previously reported in South Africa and slightly larger than those reported in the Pyrenees and the Alps. Overlap between home ranges and SFS shows the importance of predictable sources of food, especially for inexperienced juvenile birds. Satellite telemetry facilitates improved insight into the bearded vulture's spatial ecology and behaviour, which is key for the conservation of this threatened species.

Capsule: We report a significant reduction in population size and breeding success for the Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus in Sicily, its biggest stronghold in Europe, since the latest coordinated survey. Aims: To provide updated information on current population size of Lanner Falcon in Sicily and to compare breeding parameters with those obtained in previous studies. Methods: We performed an intensive coordinated field survey and literature review of breeding success parameters across the species range. Results: Overall, we monitored 126 territories throughout Sicily where the species had been reported in the last 15 years. Lanner Falcons were present only in 60 of them. Mean nest productivity (± standard deviation) was 1.09 ± 1.18 fledged young/checked pairs, flight rate was 2.22 ± 0.52 fledged young/successful pairs and breeding success was 49.0%. Conclusions: Indirect measures aimed at preventing abandonment of occupied territories should be applied, for instance by developing a network of priority areas and slowing down degradation of the pseudo-steppe habitats by agri-environmental schemes. Additionally, direct measures aimed at preventing nest robbery, including the organization of nest guarding activities, and reduction of anthropogenic disturbance and illegal shooting, must be encouraged in order to avoid territory abandonment.

Illegal trade in wildlife has been identified as one of the main challenges to wildlife conservation. In 2010, an illegal trade-ring trafficking in birds of prey was uncovered in Sicily (southern Italy). This illegal trade targeted the three most endangered species in Italy: Bonelli's eagle Aquila fasciata, Lanner falcon Falco biarmicus and Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus, all of them long-lived territorial raptors threatened with extinction across their European distribution. Illegal harvest primarily involved young birds and eggs taken from nests. After the discovery of these activities, surveillance camps and camera traps connected to the mobile Global System for Mobile communications network were established in nine Bonelli's eagle breeding sites in which illegal harvest was reported. Surveillance activities resulted in a sharp reduction in illegal harvest that has contributed to the recent increase in population size and number of breeding pairs of Bonelli's eagle in the island. This population represents 95% of the entire Italian population and is catalogued as Critically Endangered in this country. Importantly, our results highlight the impact of illegal harvest on the population dynamics of endangered species as demonstrated by a population viability analysis. This is particularly important in the case of insular species for which demographic recovery due to immigration from other geographic areas is unlikely. Systematic patrols by forestry police authorities, a resolute application of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species legislation via legal punishment, and the requirement of including all live captive specimens used for falconry in an obligatory DNA data bank would contribute to reducing the risk of extinction for small populations of endangered species of birds of prey.

Understanding ecological requirements of animals is essential to improve habitat management and conservation strategies for endangered species. However, as most studies on Golden Eagle's habitat preferences and breeding ecology have been conducted in northern latitudes (e.g. USA, Scotland, Scandinavia and the European Alpine region), our knowledge of the species ecology in the Mediterranean basin is more limited. Currently, only 16 pairs still remain in Sicily (southern Italy) and in spite of this delicate status of conservation, there were no previous attempts to analyse ecological requirements of the species in the island. Therefore, we monitored Golden Eagles from 1990 to 2012, analyzed habitat characteristics of breeding territories and quantified habitat relationships with breeding performance. We used a case-control design through Generalized Linear Models to examine ecological descriptors at two different spatial scales: (i) “territory” defined as a plot of 4 km radius centered in the nesting area; and (ii) “landscape” by means of the 10 × 10 km Universal Transversal Mercator (UTM) cells where the species was present or absent. At the territory scale, the presence of Golden Eagle was positively related to the ruggedness of the terrain and to the extension of arable land, and negatively to the extension of forests. At the landscape scale the presence of the species was positively correlated with the range of slope and negatively to the aridity of the surrounding landscape and the extension of forest areas. The Golden Eagle has experienced a strong decline in breeding performance during the last two decades in Sicily, which negatively impacted population dynamics. The best model at the territory scale included the surface of sparsely vegetated areas (i.e. a surrogate of prey availability) as the best predictor of breeding output (i.e. number of young fledged). At the landscape scale, the best predictor of breeding output was the average annual temperature (positive effect) and surface of artificial lands (negative effect). Significant differences in environmental characteristics were found between occupied and unoccupied sampling units and between territories of high and low breeding performance. Our results highlight the importance of maintaining the structure of landscape arising from traditional forms of extensive agriculture in the Mediterranean basin, thereby favouring prey availability, and the importance of limiting human activities and changes in land use in rugged mountainous areas.

A consistent body of literature suggests that migratory species, ecological specialists and/or populations living on the borders of their distribution ranges are expected to be among the most seriously affected by alterations in environmental conditions. In this framework, we tested the combined effects of human disturbance and weather conditions on the breeding performance of a long-lived endangered scavenger, the Egyptian vulture, in a study area (Biscay, northern Spain) located close to the edge of its worldwide range. Furthermore, we tested the effect of specific management strategies aimed at preventing the impact of human disturbance on the species' breeding output. Our results showed that the breeding success was negatively correlated with weather conditions, mainly rainfall and number of rainy days in June, that is the rearing period of small nestlings. Importantly, human disturbance was the main factor affecting Egyptian vultures' productivity. In fact, during the study period (2000–2012), we detected cases of high-level disturbance in 59 nests (30.9%) within 17 of the 22 monitored territories, which only produced three fledglings overall. In 2010, we started the application of management actions for preventing human disturbance, first in a few control territories and later, in 2011 and 2012, across the whole study area. The measures were found to be successful, as the breeding success increased to levels similar to those previously detected in non-disturbed nests. Our results showed that management strategies aimed at preventing human disturbance are of paramount importance in order to assure the conservation of this endangered species.

Context Dietary analyses are essential to achieve a better understanding of animal ecology. In the case of endangered species, assessing dietary requirements is crucial to improve their management and conservation. The Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata) has experienced a severe decline throughout its breeding range in Europe and, in Italy, fewer than 50 pairs remain, and only in Sicily. This species is subject to major threats, including changes in landscape composition and, consequently, prey availability, which is further aggravated by the occurrence of viral diseases in the case of rabbits. Aims To provide current data on the diet of the Bonelli’s eagle in Sicily during the breeding period and to examine dietary shifts with regard to previous studies conducted in the same study area. To discuss possible implications for conservation of the Italian population of this endangered species. Methods We used a combination of three methods, including pellet analysis, collection of prey remains, and imagery from camera-traps installed at nests, to examine the diet of 12 breeding pairs of Bonelli’s eagle from 2011 to 2017. We compared this information with data collected between 1993 and 1998 in the same study area. Key results In number, birds were the most frequently predated items (61.6%), followed by mammals (36.88%) and reptiles (1.52%). However, in terms of biomass, mammals were the main prey (65.71%), followed by birds (34.12%) and reptiles (0.17%). There was a decrease over the course of the current decade in the consumption of European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), which was compensated for with an increase in both dietary diversity and breadth in bird consumption, a trend not observed in the earlier study in the same region. Conclusions Here, we provide an updated assessment of diet composition of Bonelli’s eagle during the breeding period. Interestingly, we found significant differences within the study period (2011–2017) in terms of frequency of occurrence, percentage of biomass, dietary diversity and dietary breadth in a species at risk. Furthermore, we found significant differences between the two study periods in both frequency and percentage of biomass, with significant changes in the consumption of lagomorphs and birds. Implications Our results indicated that shifts in the diet are linked to changes in prey abundance, which may be contributing to population declines in the Bonelli’s eagle population in Sicily. Overall, measures aimed at increasing main dietary prey should be promoted to favour occupation of new territories and enhance vital demographic parameters (i.e. breeding success and survival rate) of Bonelli’s eagle across the species range. This would be particularly important for small isolated populations such as the Sicilian one.