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Introduction A significant aspect of the question of libraries and society is the relationship with government in its law-making functions, and the ethical issues to which this can give rise. The focus in this chapter will not be on the particular legislation which enables libraries to carry out their functions, but rather on those many other aspects of policy which may impinge from time to time on the library's operations and its services to users. There are occasions when the library can be seen not only as a provider of information, but also as a protector of that information and even of a nation's civil liberties. In order to provide illustrative examples, reference will be made where helpful to specific laws, but because legislation can vary from country to country, as far as possible the discussion will be in more general terms. The reader is invited to consider the extent to which legislation in his or her country affects libraries in the ways to be discussed. From this discussion, we will identify a number of ethical issues which the librarian could be faced with in the course of his or her job: there may be more than might be imagined. We should also note that the problems of the law in other jurisdictions has, in the age of the internet and the web, had an impact on libraries: for example, the issue of users accessing material which is perfectly legal in its country of origin, but not in the country within which the library is located. Thinking Point What legislation do you think could affect a public or a university library? Legal and moral issues for libraries Government's relationship with information and the various organizations, departments and other bodies connected with information creation, storage and dissemination is a complex one, made more so by rapid changes in information and communication technologies. This simply adds to the problem: legislation and policy are constantly trying to ‘catch up’ with developments and the ways in which people use those developments. In some instances there is a perceived role for government (depending on the political ideology of the country concerned); in other cases, it will be regarded as a problem for the information industries themselves to control in some way, often by establishing a code of practice enforced by an industry-representative body.

Introduction This chapter outlines the generic services that libraries offer and the internal processes they need to run in order to offer those services. Academic (including university) libraries and public libraries are examined in more detail, and special libraries, essentially libraries attached to organizations or to political entities, are introduced. Special libraries include national libraries. Institutions that perform roles related to that of libraries are also covered. Library services User services provide users with the value that they expect from libraries: 1 Information services : lending books and other materials as sources of information, maintaining institutional and community information listings, conserving and digitizing organizational and local heritage collections, and setting up and running websites and intranets supporting the host organization, the local community or even local government services. 2 Learning services : fostering reader development; offering information literacy or user education programmes, homework clubs and family learning programmes; developing lifelong learning in the community by means of basic literacy and numeracy initiatives, ICT skills training, and the provision of a wide range of networked learning resources, some of which may be library-produced. 3 Advice services : offering personal guidance on obtaining services or rights. This might involve areas such as health, careers, social security/pensions, housing, consumer rights or family matters. Advice can be seen as general information tailored to an individual need. It may involve referral (e.g. to another agency) or an action (e.g. help in completing a form). Advice might be delivered by an expert or by someone who has had the same need. 4 Leisure services : lending books or other materials for leisure reading/consumption. These materials are chiefly fiction, but leisure reading can also encompass many types of non-fiction: cookery books, do-it-yourself manuals, history, biography and so on. Such materials can be consulted within the library, for example by offering drop-in access to read newspapers and magazines. Leisure does not involve just reading: libraries can maintain listings of local clubs and events, where like-minded individuals can meet and exchange knowledge. Finally, the library can offer itself as a venue for meetings of interest-based user or community groups. Internal functions are performed by the library to maintain its user services, outlined above: 1 Acquisitions : a library needs to acquire stock, or access to remote resources, which involves selection, ordering and receiving.

This part consists of chapters on the library as a social institution, services to library users, and government legislation and policies. It describes the principal professional and ethical issues with which the librarian is faced in providing contemporary library and information services. The technical and social developments of the past few decades have heightened the need to be aware of more traditional challenges such as the protection of intellectual property (copyright) but they have also given rise to newer concerns, including data protection and privacy and freedom of information. Moreover, the widespread use of digital information resources has led to questions about the (continuing) role of the library and the librarian. Early in the development of the internet and the web, the idea arose that libraries and librarians would become unnecessary: eventually all the information we would ever need would be available in digital form to anyone with the necessary technology, while search engines would let us find whatever we sought. As the web grew in the number and nature of the resources it provided access to, and as more and more people began to use it (for a great variety of purposes), these claims began to appear less and less realistic. Finding what one wanted among the vast number of web pages became increasingly difficult: finding accurate information became even more difficult, because it was possible to publish on the web without any of the intermediary processes of peer review, refereeing, having to demonstrate a demand and so on. As with all technologies, the web is thus a double-edged sword: 1 It provides an outlet for those whose views might otherwise be censored or blocked for some reason. 2 It provides an outlet for minority views and ideas which might never find a large audience (for example, ethnic and cultural minorities). 3 It provides an outlet for minority interests, hobbies, etc. 4 It provides worldwide access to the latest research as well as to unique materials. 5 It can therefore be the greatest single medium for freedom of speech we have yet known. However, it can also: 6 provide an outlet for views which many might consider abhorrent or offensive (e.g., racism, pornography), the publication of which in one jurisdiction would not otherwise be possible

Introduction ‘My library, was Dukedom large enough’ (William Shakespeare, The Tempest , I.ii.109) ‘A library is thought in cold storage’ ( A Book of Quotations , Lord Samuel, Cresset Press, 1947) ‘I have always imagined that paradise will be a kind of library’ (Jorge Luis Borges, Poema de los Dones from El Hacedor , 1960) The above quotes give voice to deep-seated meanings of the term ‘library’. At core, there is the function of the library as a storehouse of knowledge. Knowledge, its generation and development, is what distinguishes people from the world around them. We alone of all creatures strive to understand the world and to codify and preserve our understanding. A library is the place in which knowledge is stored that has been articulated and recorded in some way. The role of a knowledge storehouse is an important one. The library is the place in which we are most likely to encounter new knowledge, and thus the library need not be seen as a lifeless warehouse but rather as a vibrant place of wonder and enlightenment, somewhere one could stay forever because of the continuing stimulus it provides. One of the quotes above is from Jorge Luis Borges, who was in charge of the National Library of Argentina. As well as a librarian, he was also a writer of short fiction. His most famous story is ‘The Library of Babel’ in which Babel is described as an infinite library: each section has six connecting points to six identical sections in all four compass directions as well as up and down, and so on, never ending. Each section contains ‘books’, which contain random characters. Because every possible combination of characters is covered in these books, then every book ever written, and books not yet written, will be hidden among the many, many books containing nothing but doggerel. Life is searching the books of this library for those few that have meaning. This story captures both the promise of libraries, to contain explanations, and also their flaw, the problem of how to find what you want. Thinking Point Try to recall times in films, television shows or other media productions in which librarians and/or libraries have appeared. Is there a predominant ‘media image’ for librarians and libraries?

PurposeTo reflect on an editorial from an earlier issue entitled “The banning of books in libraries”.Design/methodology/approachA discussion of the argument presented in the original editorial and its connection to present‐day concerns over the use and dissemination of information and links to other issues, together with the maintenance of a professional ethos in the face of those concerns.FindingsA set of moral absolutes does exist from which librarians can derive an ethos for the operation of their services. Such absolutes take on a greater significance in the complex moral climate in which we now live, but are now under threat.Practical implicationsThis article calls on library and information professionals to maintain their stand in the face of increasing pressures to compromise attitudes.Originality/valueReflects on the continuing (and increased) importance of professional values.

A summary is provided of a number of unobtrusive tests which indicate that reference services in academic and public libraries supply correct answers to inquiries 55 per cent of the time only Library and information services (LIS) must improve their accuracy rate and need to adopt client-centred services in order to operate in a new information marketplace and to meet competition from other sources Information technology facilitates a redistribution of resources from technical services to front of house' operations, but it is suggested that staff who are moved from technical services are not always the most suitable for client-centred services There is a need for interpersonal and communication skills to be fostered by the schools of library and information studies and for focused in-house training

In this chapter we will discuss the main points of an automation project, and look at various aspects of the day-to-day and long-term management of an automated system. In an introductory book such as this, it is not possible to go into the fine detail of systems analysis: the reader can be referred to standard textbooks on the subject (such as that by Daniels and Yeates [1]). In this chapter, however, we do look at the importance of staff participation and involvement in the design and implementation of automation, since current thinking places a great deal of emphasis on this as a means to effectiveness and efficiency. We will also consider some of the effects upon staff of the implementation of an automated system, in the light of speculation and reported research on the subject of the effects of IT in general.

An outline of the main components of a microcomputer is shown in Figure 2.1. The processing of data is carried out by a central processing unit (CPU) which is sometimes called a microprocessor unit (MPU). Adding devices, similar to the one shown in Figure 1.13, are part of the CPU. Instructions and data are read in by the CPU and processed data come out. The operation of the CPU is determined by a set of machine instructions (ADD is one); there are usually around a hundred of them. Processing is carried out according to a program which is a sequence of machine instructions designed to carry out a particular task.

Certain aspects of work within library and information services arise simply from the fact that they are, in their own way, business operations with typical management and administrative functions. Budgets must be prepared and accounts kept, correspondence and reports must be prepared, statistical information has to be collected and presented, and so on. How much of this there is will depend on the size of the service, but some elements will always be present.

Selecting the software for a particular application can be a lengthy task, and it will not always be easy. However, together with staff involvement in the development of an application, it is probably the most important aspect of the whole process — to select the wrong program from the wide range now available for all aspects of information management will only cause frustration and disappointment on the part of both staff and users.

This chapter deals with systems for information retrieval on microcomputers. In addition, the features of database management systems and the use of microcomputers as intelligent terminals for accessing remote databases are described. Chapter 5 deals mainly with systems for library housekeeping but the line between the two areas is difficult to draw and hence some overlap is inevitable.

In this and the next chapter, we will examine the ways in which the microcomputer can contribute to the remaining tasks of the library and information services (LIS). For the sake of convenience, these have been divided into discrete topics, but the LIS manager must always look for ways in which to integrate these functions in order to reduce duplication of effort, eliminate transcription errors, etc. Much off-theshelf software now on the market provides just this integration, in that the software is provided as a series of modules covering specific functions, which together form a complete system, from acquisitions to online catalogue. Modules can be bought as required and/or as funding permits: each module will work with all others, allowing records to be transferred from one to the other.

In an ideal situation, microcomputer hardware will be the last element in the selection process. Generally accepted practice is that the requirements of a particular application will determine the software needed and the software will, in turn, determine the hardware on which it will operate. To choose the hardware first may place an unnecessary restriction on the programs which can be used and thus on the ways in which the application can be automated.

There are microcomputers in homes in North America, Western Europe and elsewhere. Very inexpensive machines cost only a few hundred dollars and they can be bought in stores, supermarkets and by mail-order. The number and sizes of microcomputer magazines have rocketed; Byte, which is perhaps the best known worldwide, regularly tops 400 pages per issue. Other magazines, such as PC Magazine (USA) have specialized in particular sectors, in this case in IBM and so-called IBM-compatible microcomputers. This particular magazine appears approximately twice a month, generating around 10 000 pages a year. Microcomputers feature heavily in the press in many other countries, even though those publications from the USA are widely distributed abroad. In addition to the specialist press, it is common for national daily newspapers to carry regular sections on information processing.

We have concentrated throughout this book on the application of the microcomputer to information management routines within library and information services. However, some indication must be given of the demands created when the LIS manager includes microcomputers and software as a resource, alongside the more ‘traditional’ non-book materials. Provision of software and some (more limited) provision of hardware is now commonplace in the public sector library services (schools, public and academic), though it may be less evident in information services within commercial organizations, since users in these organizations will normally be provided with software in much the same way as they are provided with pens and paper.

The ideal of unhindered transborder data flow (TDF) is shown to be unrealistic; numerous barriers exist, created by various factors. Four facets of TDF are examined: privacy and data protection, the role of the European Economic Community, TDF between the Eastern bloc countries and the West, and Third World reactions to the domination of TDF by the industrialised nations. International organisations have a major role to play in efforts to accommodate the conflicting aims of the individual, the state and the commercial organisation.

There are now a number of microcomputer packages intended for almost every library routine and application, although in some cases the choice is limited. The principal features of many of these packages are discussed and related to the requirements of the routines for which they are intended. These include information retrieval, online searching, catalogues, acquisitions, serials control and circulation control.

The successful implementation of microcomputer‐based systems, despite their relatively low cost, still requires a careful quantitative and qualitative analysis of needs and tasks, followed by attention to managerial details during implementation and operation. A consideration of these factors is preceded by a general overview of the organisational and other implications of introducing an innovative system. The results of some findings are summarised, but there is a need for further research in this area, in order to establish more precisely the impact of IT‐based systems such as microcomputers on library and information services.

A number of database management programs are available and the application of one of these, Petaid, to library routines and for information retrieval is described. Applications include MARINDEX (a periodicals database), orders, union catalogues and some aspects of serials control, all operating on a Commodore Pet 3032 microcomputer. Examples of record formats are given and some of the operating problems are discussed (most of which are relatively minor). Current applications endeavour to make as much use as possible of one basic record.

ELAN (Educational Local Area Network) is the local area network of IBM PC's installed in the Department of Information Science; Strathclyde Business School. Essentially; it has a dual role (a) as part of the administration and management of the Department and (b) as a working example of electronic information handling and transfer which can be demonstrated to; and used by; students on undergraduate and postgraduate courses. Much student work is now prepared electronically; and there are signs that; in the future; much of it will also be submitted electronically!

Computer‐based systems have been used in a variety of organisations for some time now, and there are many studies of their effects upon organisations. In the 1980s, concern has centred more around the introduction of information technology (IT), which may be briefly defined as the combination or integration of computer, telecommunications and information systems. This convergence of technologies provides a greater impetus for information transfer at both the inter‐ and intra‐organisational levels. Organisations of all types have become involved with IT and have implemented (or are implementing) IT‐based systems. On the macro level, there is growing interest in, and concern over, the wider socio‐economic effects, such as employment, work patterns, information access and individual freedom and privacy.

As more and more organisations produce documents of various types by electronic means using word‐processors, databases and spreadsheets, they need a way to retrieve those documents rapidly, often in response to vaguely defined criteria. ZyIndex provides that facility, as a full text retrieval package working with files created by a range of word‐processors and similar programs. It requires a minimum 256K of Ram and twin disk drives, hard disk or Ram disk and is available for the full range of IBM PCs, all 100% compatible systems and MS‐DOS systems. ZyIndex was developed by the Zylab Corporation, 233 East Erie Street, Chicago, IL 60611, USA. Telephone: (+1) 312 642 2201). Distribution in Europe is by Perspective UK, 100 Baker Street, London, England W1M 1LA. Telephone: (+44) 1 486 6838.