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The Southern Hemisphere family Casuarinaceae has a long fossil record, both macrofossils and pollen, none of which provides any evidence about the morphology of the precursor to the family. However, it has long been considered, from both molecular phylogenies and morphological data, that the extant genus Gymnostoma retains key ancestral states and the highly reduced leaf area is a result of a scleromorphic response to low soil nutrients. Gymnostoma has by far the earliest, most extensive and best preserved macrofossil record, beginning in the Late Paleocene. Modification of the stomatal location from superficial in Gymnostoma to encrypted in furrows in the other genera assisted in water conservation as species evolved. We conclude that the morphology of the living and fossil vegetative branchlets provides evidence that low soil nutrients (especially phosphorus) and high water availability in a relatively light limited environment were the original drivers for evolution in the Casuarinaceae. Reducing water availability (xeromorphy) in progressively higher light environments were the major drivers of post-Eocene evolution in this unique plant family.

Like the first edition, this second edition is intended to be an all-inclusive publication for those interested in pineapple production or just wanting to better understand the plant. This second edition builds on the accumulated experience of the first edition authors by including new authors from a wider number of producing countries, including new chapters and new developments and by taking advantage of new publishing technology. It contains 13 chapters dealing with topics on pineapple history, distribution and world production; morphology, anatomy and taxonomy; origin and evolution; varieties and breeding; biotechnology; plant growth and physiology; cultural system; plant nutrition; organic production; other uses (e.g. ornamental, source of fibre and enzymes, animal feed); inflorescence and fruit development and yield; pests, diseases, weeds and their management; postharvest physiology, handling and storage.

The reproductive phase of pineapple begins in response to natural or growth-regulator forced induction of reproductive development. Because the inflorescence of pineapple is terminal, when reproductive development begins, formation of new leaves ceases. Once induced or forced, inflorescence and fruit development continues without interruption until the fruit matures. This chapter describes pineapple inflorescence and fruit morphology as well as growth and ripening. Factors affecting induction and inflorescence development are explained, which include cultivar sensitiviy, photoperiod, solar radiation and assorted stresses such as temperature, nutrients primarily nitrogen, and water availability. The forced induction of flowering and the prevention of natural flowering are also discussed, as well as the molecular biology of flowering. In addition, the prediction of fruit development and yield, and the factors influencing fruit quality at harvest are discussed.

This chapter discusses culture of pineapple, starting from land selection (focusing on temperature, topography, soil types, sunlight and water quality), soil surveys, soil sampling, soil analyses, land and soil preparation, treatment of previous crop residues, to planting, irrigation, crop scheduling, fertilizer application, and pest, disease and weed control. Other cultural practices are also mentioned, including slip removal, sucker removal and trimming, crown removal, and leaf pruning (trimming). The chapter also described preharvest fruit treatments, harvesting, transportation of harvested fruit, ratooning and farm efficiency.

This chapter discusses tissue culture, including topics on micropropagation, organogenesis and somatic embryogenesis, in vitro production of metabolites, cultivar improvement, beneficial microorganisms, somaclonal variation, and in vitro germplasm conservation of pineapple. Anther and ovule culture; protoplast isolation and fusion; genes and genetic resources, genomes, genetic engineering and molecular markers are also described.