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In the literature on sociobehavioral theory and educational administration, theorists are offering other methodologies as replacements for empiricism or positivism. Other paradigms, such as critical theory, and other methodologies are used. Sometimes these are combined with the empirical method. Research focusing on how people interact in the world is termed sociobehavioral theory, and the research on how people react in a patterned manner is termed organizational theory. Research on the behavior of school administrators is used to construct educational administration theory and is linked through methodology to the philosophic assumptions of a paradigmatic position. Positivism--the traditional paradigm of educational administration--assumes a reality that is objective and that can be fully measured and described. In the 1960s, the social sciences considered other approaches, such as critical theory, which examines the differences between ideas and reality, historical context, the claims of conceptual principles, subjective responses, and political and ethical concerns by using research methods that are more qualitative than statistical. This nonpositivistic view is no longer viewed as novel or radical. No view of reality should be excluded from the field of educational administration. A multiparadigmatic approach may yield more insight than any one viewpoint can offer. (Contains 63 references.) (RKJ)

Logical positivism, or logical empiricism, emphasizes rationality, especially preferring the verification of facts over speculation. This report clearly places traditional research methodology in education in the arena of logical positivism. Since reality is seen as ordered and objective, assumptions are made about people and the gathering of data. Human behavior is rational, and problems can be solved rationally. The regularities of human behavior will result in laws of human behavior. Data can be gathered without altering the organization being studied. Organizations are seen as basically similar whether they are schools, businesses, political organizations, or health-care organizations. The role of administration will also be similar. Any administrator maintains order through rewards and sanctions for the purpose of attaining organizational goals. Many sources are cited as currently advocating positivistic theory, including textbooks for educational administration. (Contains 28 references.) (RKJ)

Critical theory methodology is used in this paper to explore the notion that the daily practice of school personnel embodies prevailing societal ideology. This ideology can be oppressive and restraining, and it is self-maintaining in that school personnel pass it on to their students, who then carry it with them into society. Ideological influences can be exposed through objective and subjective (empirical and case study) methodologies, allowing school personnel to change their awareness of the power bases in schools through the process of reflection and thus emancipate themselves from them. Educators have a unique role in such critique because they not only can change themselves but also can influence change in students and, thereby, influence such change in society. Critical educational administration theory provides a means whereby school leaders can understand and ultimately disentangle themselves from the various forces that impinge upon educational practice. Because of the inherent rationality of people, administrators and members of the school community would move toward being less restrained by the bonds of externally and internally imposed ideology. Under the critical perspective, the task of the school administrator in the school community is to establish a climate whereby reflection, critique, and open dialogue are possible. Contains 56 references. (RT)

Critical theory focuses on the oppression of the individual, the group, and society by self-imposed or externally imposed influences. To emancipate people on all three levels of oppression, individuals must engage in a critique of the personal, situational, and historical forces which cause oppression. By the exposure of these forces and their juxtaposition against an ideal view of how these forces could be lessened, people become less oppressed and move toward emancipation. Critical theory is a personal responsibility and not just the responsibility of researchers who stand above the crowd and inform nonresearchers about how and what reality is. Under the critical perspective, people use their own insights as well as the work of researchers to understand and, ultimately, change reality. This paper presents a survey of critical theory. Contains 38 references. (BT)

Ways in which the application of positivistic, phenomenological, ethnomethodological, and critical theories affect educational administration theory and practice are explored in this paper. A review of literature concludes that positivism separates practice from abstract theory; phenomenology offers a different view of reality; ethnomethodology is based on the consensus of school community members and recognition of contextual influences on action; and critical theory can generate a dynamic self-reflection process. Positivism views the school administrator as an agent of the social order; phenomenology, as a negotiator; ethnomethodology, as a collaborative leader; and critical theory, as a facilitator for the fulfillment of others' human potential. A conclusion is that there are limitations to each paradigm, yet each offers a new richness of interpretation for educational administration research, theory, and practice. Two tables outline the theoretical premises and implications for practice of each perspective. (53 references) (LMI)

The prereferral process for intervention with students who might be candidates for special education can provide indirect services outside of the special education system and has benefits for teachers, parents, and students. During the prereferral process the classroom teacher remains the pivotal professional. Teachers observe the student's problems and coordinate with each other in developing identification standards and a non-threatening trial intervention. The prereferral process also stresses parental involvement at an early stage of intervention and predisposes the parent to a cooperative position. Students are benefitted by consistency of behavioral and academic expectations, inclusion in the intervention and evaluation process, and early identification of problems putting them at risk. Provision of a formal intervening step through the prereferral process allows earlier identification of problems, encourages a school climate of collegiality, and fosters parental and student involvement. Includes 7 references. (DB)