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The black saltmarsh mosquito, Aedes taeniorhynchus, is a prominent nuisance mosquito within St. Johns County, Florida. Due to their characteristically large outbreaks, and the elevated amount of insecticide application correlated with the outbreaks, local populations of Ae. taeniorhynchus are at an increased risk of developing insecticide resistance. This study was established to form a baseline susceptibility of Ae. taeniorhynchus against two technical grade materials, permethrin, and chlorpyrifos. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention bottle bioassays were conducted with technical-grade materials during two outbreaks in the fall of 2023. Results indicated a baseline susceptibility against the materials tested, but most notably, the phenotypic expression of knockdown resistance (kdr) was observed. Results highlight the need for continued monitoring and investigation into the resistance status and resistance level of this common Florida species., (Copyright © 2024 by The American Mosquito Control Association, Inc.)

Demodex species are associated with many dermatological diseases, so an acaricidal agent that is effective against them and safe for skin applications may benefit many diseases. This study aims to investigate the anti-demodex potential of spilanthol, a product obtained from the Spilanthes Acmella plant, by determining the minimal effective dose for the first time in the literature. Demodex mites were obtained from 70 patients with standard superficial skin biopsy. Spilanthol extract was used at 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5%. Standard immersion oil was used for the negative control, and permethrin 5% was used for the positive control group. The dependent variable is the survival time of the mite. Comparisons with the negative control group, the anti-demodex effect demonstrated itself in all groups, creating a statistically significant difference (p < 0.001). The positive control group, had 3%, 4%, and 5% spilanthol rates which were very similar to the results with 5% permethrin (p > 0.05). Higher concentrations than 3% did not make any additional contribution to survival times. This is the first attempt to show the dose-dependent acaricidal effect of spilanthol on demodex mites. Even the 3% dose shows similar results to 5% permethrin, and no additional effect increase was observed at higher doses. Therefore, in vivo, studies may be planned with a 3% spilanthol dose for further studies., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Mosquito-borne viral diseases such as dengue fever, chikungunya, and yellow fever have been documented in Ethiopia since the 1960s. However, the efficacy of public health insecticides against Aedes aegypti that transmits these viruses remains poorly understood in the country, particularly in the Afar Region. Thus, the aim of the study was to assess the susceptibility status of Ae. aegypti to deltamethrin, permethrin, alpha-cypermethrin, pirimiphos-methyl, bendiocarb, and propoxur insecticides. Larvae and pupae of Aedes species were collected from Awash Arba, Awash Sebat, and Werer towns of the Afar Region of Ethiopia during July-October 2022, brought to the Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology, insectary and reared to adults. Non-blood-fed, 3-5 days-old females Ae. aegypti were exposed to pyrethroid, carbamate, and organophosphate insecticide impregnated papers in tube test following the standard guidelines. Knockdown rates were noted at 10 minutes interval until one hour. The mortality in mosquitoes was recorded 24 hours after 60 minutes of exposure. The mortality rates of Ae. aegypti exposed to propoxur were 87% in all the study towns. Similarly, 88% mortality in Ae. aegypti was recorded when tested with bendiocarb in Awash Sebat and Awash Arba towns. Suspected resistance of Ae. aegypti (95% mortality) to alpha-cypermethrin was observed in Awash Arba town. However, Ae. aegypti collected from all the three sites was observed to be susceptible to deltamethrin, permethrin, and pirimiphos-methyl. Ae. aegypti was resistant to 0.1% bendiocarb and 0.1% propoxur and possibly resistant to 0.05% alpha-cypermethrin. On the other hand, it was susceptible to 0.05% deltamethrin, 0.75% permethrin, and 0.25% pirimiphos-methyl. Thus, vector control products with deltamethrin, permethrin, and pirimiphos-methyl can be used in the control of adult Ae. aegypti in the Afar Region of Ethiopia. However, further studies should be carried out to evaluate the susceptibility status of Ae. aegypti to alpha-cypermethrin in the Awash Arba area., Competing Interests: The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest., (Copyright: © 2024 Seid et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Resistance to insecticides is one of the great challenges that vector control programs must face. The constant use of pyrethroid-type insecticides worldwide has caused selection pressure in populations of the Aedes aegypti vector, which has promoted the emergence of resistant populations. The resistance mechanism to pyrethroid insecticides most studied to date is target-site mutations that desensitize the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) of the insect to the action of pyrethroids. In the present study, susceptibility to the pyrethroid insecticides permethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and deltamethrin was evaluated in fourteen populations from the department of Córdoba, Colombia. The CDC bottle bioassay and WHO tube methods were used. Additionally, the frequencies of the F1534C, V1016I, and V410L mutations were determined, and the association of resistance with the tri-locus haplotypes was examined. The results varied between the two techniques used, with resistance to permethrin observed in thirteen of the fourteen populations, resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin in two populations, and susceptibility to deltamethrin in all the populations under study with the CDC method. In contrast, the WHO method showed resistance to the three insecticides evaluated in all populations. The frequencies of the mutated alleles ranged from 0.05-0.43 for 1016I, 0.94-1.0 for 1534C, and 0.01-0.59 for 410L. The triple homozygous mutant CIL haplotype was associated with resistance to all three pyrethroids evaluated with the WHO bioassay, while with the CDC bioassay, it was only associated with resistance to permethrin. This study highlights the importance of implementing systematic monitoring of kdr mutations, allowing resistance management strategies to be dynamically adjusted to achieve effective control of Aedes aegypti., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Atencia–Pineda et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Background: Aedes aegypti (L.) is the main vector of dengue, yellow fever, Zika, and chikungunya viruses in many parts of the world, impacting millions of people worldwide each year. Insecticide-based interventions have been effective in controlling Aedes mosquito populations for several years, but in recent times, resistance to these compounds has developed, posing a global threat to the control of this mosquito., Methods: Ovitraps were used to collect A. aegypti eggs in the cities of Tartagal and San Ramón de la Nueva Orán (Salta), Puerto Iguazú (Misiones), and Clorinda (Formosa). World Health Organization (WHO)-impregnated papers with the discriminating concentration (DC) of permethrin, 5X, 10X and pirimiphos methyl were used for the toxicological bioassays. We also genotyped each sample for the three kdr single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP): V410L, V1016I, and F1534C in individual TaqMan quantitative PCR (qPCR) reactions., Results: All investigated A. aegypti populations were highly resistant to permethrin, as the mortality percentage with the permethrin 10×DC remained below 98%. However, all populations were 100% susceptible to pirimiphos-methyl. Kdr genotyping demonstrated the presence of the V410L mutation for the first time in Argentina in all the populations studied. A prevalence of the triple mutant genotype (LL + II + CC) was observed in the northeastern cities of Clorinda (83.3%) and Puerto Iguazú (55.6%)., Conclusions: This study demonstrates for the first time the presence and intensity of resistance to permethrin in different populations from Argentina, and correlates the observed phenotype with the presence of kdr mutations (genotype)., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The versatility of cytochrome P450 reductase ( CPR ) in transferring electrons to P450s from other closely related species has been extensively exploited, e.g., by using An. gambiae CPR ( AgCPR ), as a homologous surrogate, to validate the role of An. funestus P450s in insecticide resistance. However, genomic variation between the AgCPR and An. funestus CPR ( AfCPR ) suggests that the full metabolism spectrum of An. funestus P450s might be missed when using AgCPR. To test this hypothesis, we expressed AgCPR and AfCPR side-by-side with CYP6P9a and CYP6P9b and functionally validated their role in the detoxification of insecticides from five different classes. Major variations were observed within the FAD- and NADP-binding domains of AgCPR and AfCPR , e.g., the coordinates of the second FAD stacking residue AfCPR -Y 456 differ from that of AgCPR -His 456 . While no significant differences were observed in the cytochrome c reductase activities, when co-expressed with their endogenous AfCPR , the P450s significantly metabolized higher amounts of permethrin and deltamethrin, with CYP6P9b-AfCPR membrane metabolizing α-cypermethrin as well. Only the CYP6P9a-AfCPR membrane significantly metabolized DDT (producing dicofol), bendiocarb, clothianidin, and chlorfenapyr (bioactivation into tralopyril). This demonstrates the broad substrate specificity of An. funestus CYP6P9a/-b , capturing their role in conferring cross-resistance towards unrelated insecticide classes, which can complicate resistance management.

Background: Anopheles stephensi is recognized as the main malaria vector in Iran. In recent years, resistance to several insecticide classes, including organochlorine, pyrethroids, and carbamate compounds, has been reported for this medically important malaria vector. The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the insecticide susceptibility status of An. stephensi collected from the southern part of Iran, and to clarify the mechanism of resistance, using bioassay tests and molecular methods comparing the sequence of susceptible and resistant mosquitoes., Methods: Mosquito larvae were collected from various larval habitats across six different districts (Gabrik, Sardasht, Tidar, Dehbarez, Kishi and Bandar Abbas) in Hormozgan Provine, located in the southern part of Iran. From each district standing water areas with the highest densities of Anopheles larvae were selected for sampling, and adult mosquitoes were reared from them. Finally, the collected mosquito species were identified using valid keys. Insecticide susceptibility of An. stephensi was tested using permethrin 0.75%, lambdacyhalothrin 0.05%, deltamethrin 0.05%, and DDT 4%, following the World Health Organization (WHO) test procedures for insecticide resistance monitoring. Additionally, knockdown resistance (kdr) mutation in the voltage-gated sodium channel (vgsc) gene was sequenced and analysed among resistant populations to detect possible molecular mechanisms of observed resistance phenotypes., Results: The susceptibility status of An. stephensi revealed that resistance to DDT and permethrin was found in all districts. Furthermore, resistance to all tested insecticides in An. stephensi was detected in Gabrik, Sardasht, Tidar, and Dehbarez. Analysis of knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations at the vgsc did not show evidence for the presence of this mutation in An. stephensi., Conclusion: Based on the results of the current study, it appears that in An. stephensi from Hormozgan Province (Iran), other resistance mechanisms such as biochemical resistance due to detoxification enzymes may be involved due to the absence of the kdr mutation or non-target site resistance. Further investigation is warranted in the future to identify the exact resistance mechanisms in this main malaria vector across the country., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Pyrethroids are the most widely used insecticides to control vector borne diseases including malaria. Physiological resistance mechanisms to these insecticides have been well described, whereas those for behavioral resistance remain overlooked. Field data suggest the presence of spatial sensory detection by Anopheles mosquitoes of the pyrethroid molecules used in insecticide-based control tools, such as long-lasting insecticide nets or insecticide residual spraying. This opens the way to the emergence of a wide range of behavioral adaptations among malaria vectors. However, the spatial sensory detection of these molecules is controversial and needs to be demonstrated. The goal of this study was to behaviorally characterize the non-contact detection of three of the most common pyrethroids used for malaria vector control: permethrin, deltamethrin an ⍺-cypermethrin. To reach this goal, we recorded the behavior (takeoff response) of Anopheles gambiae pyrethroid-sensitive and resistant laboratory strains, as well as field collected mosquitoes from the Gambiae Complex, when exposed to the headspace of bottles containing different doses of the insecticides at 25 and 35°C, in order to represent a range of laboratory and field temperatures. We found the proportion of laboratory susceptible and resistant female mosquitoes that took off was, in all treatments, dose and the temperature dependent. Sensitive mosquitoes were significantly more prone to take off only in the presence of ⍺-cypermethrin, whereas sensitive and resistant mosquitoes showed similar responses to permethrin and deltamethrin. Field-collected mosquitoes of the Gambiae Complex were also responsive to permethrin, independently of the species identity (An. gambiae, An. coluzzii and An. arabiensis) or their genotypes for the kdr mutation, known to confer resistance to pyrethroids. The observed ability of Anopheles spp. mosquitoes to detect insecticides without contact could favor the evolution of behavioral modifications that may allow them to avoid or reduce the adverse effect of insecticides and thus, the development of behavioral resistance., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2024 Kambou et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

The cosmopolitan ectoparasite human head louse, Pediculus humanus capitis (De Geer)(Phthiraptera:Pediculidae), affects mostly school-aged children, with infestations reported every year mainly due to louse resistance to pyrethroids. One of the main resistance mechanisms of pyrethroids is the target site insensitivity (kdr), which is caused by single-nucleotide point mutations (SNPs) located in the voltage-sensitive sodium channel gene. In this study, we analyzed individual head lice toxicologically via the description of their susceptibility profile to permethrin and genetically through the genotypification of their kdr alleles as well as nuclear microsatellite loci. Lice were collected from 4 schools in the city of Buenos Aires, Argentina. The resistance ratios varied from 33.3% to 71.4%, with a frequency of the T917I kdr mutation of 87.31% and with 83.6% of the head lice being homozygous resistant to pyrethroids. Microsatellite data indicated that all the louse school populations had genotype proportions that deviated from Hardy-Weinberg expectations, with FIS > 0 reflecting a deficit of heterozygotes. Bottleneck analysis suggested that all louse school populations underwent a recent reduction in population sizes, while 3 of the 4 schools had gene flow values around 1, indicating ongoing gene flow among those schools. Our study suggests that school louse populations in the city of Buenos Aires may form a metapopulation, where each school represents a small population that undergoes extinction and recolonization processes under strong permethrin selection. This is the first multilevel analysis integrating toxicological, kdr-genotyping, and microsatellite data in human louse populations., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Background: Ultra-low volume (ULV) space sprays aerosolize insecticide formulated products (FP) to contact flying mosquitoes, while barrier sprays expose mosquitoes to FP residue on vegetation and other surfaces. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention bottle bioassays used to assess insecticide resistance are based on residual active ingredient (AI) exposure and do not directly relate to FP efficacy. The current pilot study developed a novel compact wind tunnel for mosquito exposure to FP. Caged Aedes albopictus and Culex pipiens/quinquefasciatus were exposed to undiluted Biomist®3 + 15 FP (permethrin AI) or air (control) within the wind tunnel, transferred to new cages, and held in a 28 °C incubator. Separate mosquitoes were exposed to residual permethrin AI (8 μg mL -1 ) in bottle bioassays. Mortality was monitored 15, 30, 60, and 120 min post-exposure., Results: Chi-square tests (P < 0.05) showed significantly higher mortality in Aedes compared to Culex populations for most time points in both bioassay and wind tunnel exposure groups. As expected, mosquitoes exposed to Biomist®3 + 15 showed higher mortality rates than bottle bioassay exposure to permethrin. Two Culex colonies resistant to permethrin in bottle bioassays were susceptible to Biomist®3 + 15 in the wind tunnel., Conclusion: The novel compact wind tunnel developed here may be an alternative to field trials for testing FP efficacy, avoiding factors such as weather, logistical planning, and extended personnel hours. The wind tunnel could allow programs to conveniently test efficacy of multiple FP. Comparisons of different insecticide exposure methods provide practical information to inform operational decisions. © 2024 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2024 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.)

Background: The Dual-Active Ingredient long-lasting insecticidal nets (Dual-AI LLIN) have been developed to counteract the reduced efficacy of pyrethroid (PY)-only nets due to widespread pyrethroid insecticide resistance in malaria vector mosquitoes. They constitute half of the nets distributed in sub-Saharan Africa between 2022 and 2024. However, their effectiveness once they develop holes is unclear, particularly in pyrethroid-resistant settings. This study evaluates the textile integrity of three dual- AI LLINs compared to standard PY LLN, over 3 years of use in a community in Tanzania and the associated impact on malaria prevalence and incidence., Methods: A secondary analysis of data from a randomized controlled trial (RCT) in North-western Tanzania was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of α-cypermethrin only; pyriproxyfen and α-cypermethrin (PPF-PY); chlorfenapyr and α-cypermethrin (chlorfenapyr-PY); and the synergist piperonyl butoxide and permethrin (PBO-PY) LLINs on malaria infection prevalence and case incidence. The association between the net textile condition and 1/malaria prevalence over 3 years of use between 2019 and 2022, and 2/malaria case incidence in a cohort of children over 2 years of follow-up was assessed between 2019 and 2021., Results: There was no significant association between damaged (OR 0.98, 95% CI 0.71-1.37, p-value  = 0.655) and too-torn (OR 1.07, 95% CI 0.77-1.47, p-value = 0.694) compared to intact nets on malaria prevalence for all net types. However, there were reduced rates of malaria case incidence in children sleeping under a net in good condition compared to too-torn nets (incidence rate ratio (IRR) 0.76 [95% CI 0.63-0.92], p = 0.005). Malaria incidence was also consistently lower in too-torn PBO-PY LLIN (IRR = 0.37 [95% CI 0.19-0.72], p = 0.003) and chlorfenapyr-PY LLIN (IRR = 0.45 [95% CI 0.33-0.97], p = 0.053) compared to an intact PY-only LLIN during the first year of follow up. In year 2, the incidence was only significantly lower in intact chlorfenapyr-PY LLIN (IRR = 0.49 [95% CI 0.29-0.81], p = 0.006) compared to intact PY LLIN., Conclusion: The study confirmed that sleeping under a chlorfenapyr-PY LLIN or PBO-PY LLIN offered superior protection to pyrethroid-only nets even when torn. Preventing the development of holes is essential as they impact the level of protection offered against malaria infection., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, number (NCT03554616)., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

In addition to killing, mosquito nets treated with permethrin have been claimed to repel mosquitoes, reducing their success in passing through a holed net. We have tested this hypothesis by tracking mosquitoes in a modified World Health Organization tunnel test. In the original assay, mosquitoes are released at one end of the tunnel and have to pass through a holed piece of net to reach the bait at the other end. The mosquitoes are left in the tunnel overnight, while mortality and feeding rates are scored the following morning. Since the original test does not reveal how mosquitoes move within the tunnel, we combined the tunnel with a 3D video camera system. We tracked susceptible and permethrin-resistant Anopheles gambiae s.s. as they moved in the tunnel and interacted with an untreated or a permethrin-treated net (Olyset Net ® ). Surprisingly, while permethrin increased the mortality and reduced blood-feeding rates, twice as many mosquitoes passed through the holes of the permethrin-treated net. The flight trajectories reveal that upon exposure to the permethrin-treated net, both mosquito colonies showed increased 'excitation', thereby augmenting their chance of getting through the holes in the net. The study underlines the complexity of behavioural modes of action of insecticides., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background: Aedes aegypti is a main vector of arboviral diseases, principally dengue, chikungunya, and Zika. Insecticides remain the most effective vector control method. Pyrethroid is the main insecticide currently used, and the long-term use of insecticides can cause mosquitoes to develop knockdown resistance. Studying the mutation sites and genotypes of Ae. aegypti can reveal the mutation characteristics and regional distribution of the kdr gene in an Ae. aegypti population. Testing for a correlation between the mutation rate in various populations and pyrethrin resistance can clarify the resistance mechanism., Results: The bioassay results showed that all 15 populations are resistant. In the study of the kdr gene, three non-synonymous mutations were identified in the DNA of first generation females from the wild Ae. aegypti population: S989P (TCC-CCC), V1016G (GTA-GGA), and F1534C (TTC-TGC). The mortality rate of the various populations was correlated with the mutation rate at the V1016G + F1534C locus, but not the S989P + V1016G locus., Conclusion: Aedes aegypti populations in border regions of Yunnan Province are resistant to permethrin and beta-cyfluthrin. The insecticidal effect of beta-cyfluthrin is stronger than that of permethrin. The mutation rate at sites V1016G + F1534C is negatively correlated with the mortality of Ae. aegypti based on bioassays. © 2024 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2024 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.)

Background: "Regeneration time" (RT) denotes the time required to obtain a stable mortality rate for mosquitoes exposed to insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) after three consecutive washes of a net in a day. The RT informs the wash interval used to artificially age ITNs to simulate their lifetime performance under user conditions (20 washes). RT was estimated following World Health Organization (WHO) longitudinal method (LM) procedures. Longitudinal evaluation may introduce heterogeneity due to mosquito batch variability, complicating RT determination. To overcome this, nets at each stage of regeneration (i.e., 1, 2, 3, 5 and 7 days post wash) were prepared in advance and refrigerated; then, a complete regeneration series was tested with a single mosquito batch on 1 testing day, completing four series over 4 days. This study compared the complete series method (CSM) against the LM., Methods: The overall heterogeneity in the methods for estimating RT of one incorporated alpha-cypermethrin and piperonyl butoxide (PBO) and one incorporated permethrin with PBO ITNs was determined using laboratory-reared resistant Anopheles arabiensis under standard laboratory conditions. LM methods and CSM were compared in two experiments with refrigerated nets acclimated for (i) 2 h (test 1) and (ii) 3 h (test 2). Four regeneration replicates per day were tested per ITN product with 50 mosquitoes exposed per replicate (equivalent sample size to LM). The heterogeneity from these methods was compared descriptively., Results: The intra-method variability for unwashed pieces was minimal, with variance of 1.26 for CSM and 1.18 for LM. For unwashed nets, LM had substantially greater variance and ratio of LM:CSM was 2.66 in test 1 and 2.49 in test 2. The magnitude of mortality measured in bioassays depended on sample acclimation after refrigeration., Conclusions: The CSM is a convenient method for determining the regeneration times. ITNs are prepared in advance, reducing pressure to prepare all samples to start on a single day. A complete regeneration series of samples is removed from the refrigerator, defrosted and evaluated on a single day with one mosquito batch reducing the influence of mosquito batch heterogeneity on results. Replicates can be conducted over several days but do not have to be conducted on consecutive days, allowing easy facility scheduling., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Controlling housefly populations relies on the use of insecticides, which inevitably leads to the development of resistance. A better and more comprehensive understanding of the spatial and temporal distribution of resistance could guide the control of houseflies. However, most studies on housefly resistance in China are scattered and poorly coordinated. We collected resistance data from houseflies in the published literature and from the vector biomonitoring system of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. A 5- or 10-year resolution was used to study the temporal dynamics of resistance to five commonly used insecticides: deltamethrin, permethrin, beta-cypermethrin, dichlorvos, and propoxur. ArcGIS was used to visualize their spatial distributions. The correlation between year and resistance coefficient was determined using SPSS 26.0 and RStudio to explore the changes in resistance over the years. A total of 2128 data were included in this study, ranging from 1982 to 2022, based on which we found significant increases in resistance over the past forty years for the five studied insecticides. Among them, pyrethroids had the most strikingly elevated resistance level and were mainly distributed in the northern and southeastern coastal areas. Dichlorvos and propoxur had intermediate increases in resistance, and most of these increases were identified in North China and the Yangtze River. Housefly resistance to commonly used insecticides in China is increasing and spatially heterogeneous. This finding also highlights the necessity of continuous routine surveillance of housefly resistance, which could guide future housefly control operations and slow the development of resistance., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Aedes mosquitoes are the main vectors of arboviruses in Benin. Cases of dengue have been reported in Benin with all four serotypes of the virus actively circulating in this region. Some agricultural settings are known to harbor Aedes vectors responsible for the transmission of arboviruses. The massive use of certain insecticides in agricultural settings has probably contributed to insecticide resistance in these vectors. In Benin, the susceptibility of arbovirus vectors to insecticides is poorly studied. In addition, the distribution of Wolbachia spp., which is used against some arboviruses is unknown. Moreover, there is limited information regarding the vectors responsible for the transmission of arboviruses in Benin. This present study monitored the species composition, arboviruses, and Wolbachia symbiont status, as well as the phenotypic and molecular insecticide resistance profile of Aedes populations from three agroecosystems in Benin. Aedes species identification was performed morphologically and confirmed using qPCR. (RT)-qPCR assay was applied for monitoring the presence of DENV, CHIKV, ZIKV, and WNV pathogens as well as for naturally occurring Wolbachia symbionts. Insecticide resistance was assessed phenotypically, by permethrin (0.75%) exposure of Adults (F0) using World Health Organization (WHO) bioassay protocols, and at the molecular level, using TaqMan (RT)-qPCR assays for assessing knock-down resistance (kdr) mutations (F1534C, V1016G/I, and S989P) and the expression levels of eight detoxification genes (P450s from the CYP9 and CYP6 families, carboxylesterases and glutathione-S-transferases). Aedes aegypti (Ae. aegypti) mosquitoes were the most abundant (93.9%) in the three agroecosystems studied, followed by Aedes albopictus (Ae. albopictus) mosquitoes (6.1%). No arboviruses were detected in the study's mosquito populations. Naturally occurring Wolbachia symbionts were present in 7 pools out of 15 pools tested. This could influence the effectiveness of vector control strategies based on exogenously introduced Wolbachia, all present in the three agroecosystems. Full susceptibility to permethrin was observed in all tested populations of Ae. albopictus. On the contrary, Ae. aegypti were found to be resistant in all three agroecosystem sites except for banana plantation sites, where full susceptibility was observed. Molecular analysis revealed that individual target site resistance kdr mutations F1534C and V1016G/I were detected in most Ae. aegypti populations. Additionally, double mutant (F1534C + V1016G/I) mosquitoes were found in some populations, and in one case, triple mutant (F1534C + V1016G/I + S989P) mosquitoes were detected. Metabolic resistance, as reflected by overexpression of three P450 genes (CYP6BB2, CYP9J26, and CYP9J32), was also detected in Ae. aegypti mosquitoes. Our study provides information that could be used to strategize future vector control strategies and highlights the importance of continuing vector surveillance. Future studies should assess the effect of piperonyl butoxide (PBO) on metabolic resistance and identify the different strains of Wolbachia spp., to choose the best vector control strategies in Benin., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Background: An important component of the biological activity of pyrethroids, when used in disease vector control, is excito-repellency. In this study, behavioral differences between insecticide susceptible (Orlando) and pyrethroid resistant (Puerto Rican) strains of Aedes aegypti were explored in a round glass arena using fabrics treated with permethrin, etofenprox, deltamethrin, or DDT. Repellency was evaluated across several variables, including the time to first flight (TFF), number of landings (NOL), total flight time (TFT), and maximum surface contact (MSC), all by video analysis., Results: Results from the Orlando strain indicated they were less likely than the Puerto Rican strain to tolerate tarsal contact with the treated fabrics. All four response variables indicated that the mosquito flight and landing behavior was most affected by pyrethroid resistance [knockdown resistance (kdr)] status. In other experiments, mosquitoes were surgically altered, with antennae ablated bilaterally, and these mosquitoes were more likely to stay on the treated surfaces for longer periods of time, irrespective of any chemical exposure. There were also differences in the responses to antennal ablation between the two strains of mosquitoes, indicating that resistance factors, probably kdr, influence the reactivity of mosquitoes to pyrethroid and DDT treatments, and that it was not completely negated by antennal ablation., Conclusions: These findings confirm the role of antennal olfactory components in the expression of excito-repellent behaviors, and also support the hypothesis that excito-repellency from pyrethroid/DDT exposure is probably due to a combination of sublethal neurotoxic excitation and interactions with the olfactory system. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Resistance to permethrin has been reported in Pakistani strains of Musca domestica. The present study explored the performance of biological traits and analyzed life tables to determine whether there is any detrimental effect of permethrin resistance on the fitness of permethrin-resistant strains [an isogenic resistant strain (Perm-R) and a field strain (Perm-F)] compared to a susceptible strain (Perm-S). Perm-R and Perm-F exhibited 233.93- and 6.87-fold resistance to permethrin, respectively. Life table analyses revealed that the Perm-R strain had a significantly shorter preadult duration, longer longevity, shorter preoviposition period, higher fecundity, finite rate of increase, intrinsic rate of increase, net reproductive rate and a shorter mean generation time, followed by the Perm-F strain when compared to the Perm-S strain. Data of the performance of biological traits reveled that permethrin resistance strains had a better fit than that of the Perm-S strain. The enhanced fitness of resistant strains of M. domestica may accelerate resistance development to permethrin and other pyrethroids in Pakistan. Some possible measures to manage M. domestica and permethrin resistance in situations of fitness advantage are discussed., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Aedes aegypti is the species of greatest concern for mosquito-borne disease in the Florida Keys. Previous locally transmitted dengue outbreaks in Key West (2009-2010) and Key Largo (2020) illustrate the need for an immediate and effective response plan to maintain Ae. aegypti populations below threshold levels. An important part of the Florida Keys Mosquito Control District's vector response plan is adulticide application because it can provide an immediate reduction in Ae. aegypti adults in the community. It has become apparent that in the Florida Keys, and throughout Florida, Ae. aegypti resistance to the adulticide permethrin is prevalent. This study uses the CDC bottle bioassay method to look at resistance in Ae. aegypti collected from Key Largo, Vaca Key, and Key West, FL. Resistance was found in all three populations when exposed to permethrin and Sumithrin® but not malathion. Inhibitor testing revealed that esterase and glutathione transferase activity is involved in resistance to permethrin in Key Largo and Key West Ae. aegypti populations while oxidase activity is involved in resistance to permethrin in Ae. aegypti from Vaca Key. Lack of knockdown at the diagnostic time and previous studies detecting the presence of kdr -associated allele mutations suggest knockdown resistance in all three populations. Results from this study show that there are multiple factors involved with resistance in the Ae. aegypti populations in the Florida Keys and that resistance mechanisms vary between islands. Continued surveillance will remain important so the most effective active ingredients can be used in response to future disease transmission.

In the western United States, Culex tarsalis is the most important vector of West Nile virus. Insecticides containing permethrin or other pyrethroid compounds are commonly used to control these mosquitoes. Because of the range of environments where Cx. tarsalis are found, this species is under insecticide pressure from both vector control and agricultural spraying. Mosquito populations may evolve resistance through mechanisms such as target site insensitivity, including the frequently identified knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations. Prevalence of permethrin resistance was determined for Cx. tarsalis from 5 southern California field sites representing 2 distinct valley regions (Coachella Valley and Inland Valley), which are geographically separated by the north-south-running Peninsular Mountain Ranges. These two valley regions are >100 km apart and vary considerably in their environmental and habitat characteristics. Permethrin resistance in mosquito populations was determined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) bottle bioassay, using glass bottles coated with permethrin at 0.19 μg/cm2 of internal surface. Permethrin resistance was evident in Cx. tarsalis populations from the Coachella Valley field sites with all sites showing similar mortality in the bottle bioassay, while Cx. tarsalis from the Inland Valley field sites were largely susceptible to permethrin, with mortality rates that were similar to a susceptible lab strain of Cx. tarsalis., (Copyright © 2023 by The American Mosquito Control Association, Inc.)

Mosquitoes are important vectors of several arthropod-borne diseases, which remain a priority for epidemiological research. Mosquito vector control strategies have traditionally relied on chemical insecticides such as synthetic pyrethroids. However, the indiscriminate use of pesticides has resulted in the development of resistance in many mosquito species. In insects, resistance evolves primarily through the overexpression of one or more gene products from the cytochrome P450, carboxylesterase, and glutathione superfamilies. The current study examined the expression of cytochrome P450 CYP6M2, CYP6AA7, CYP6Z2, CYP9J34, α-Esterase, Esterase B1, and neuroactin genes in larvae and adults of a permethrin-resistant (PerRes) and susceptible (Sus) Culex quinquefasciatus strains. The results showed that the CYP6AA7 gene was overexpressed (10-fold) in larvae and adults with PerRes (p < 0.01) followed by CYPJ34 (9.0-fold) and CYP6Z2 (5.0-fold) compared to the Sus, whereas fewer changes in CYP6M gene expression were observed in PerRes adults (p < 0.05), and no expression was found in larvae. The esterase gene was overexpressed in PerRes larvae (9.0-fold) followed by adults (2.5-fold) compared to the susceptible strain. Based on data, the present study suggests that cytochrome P450, CYP6AA7, CYP6Z2, CYP9J34, α-Esterase, Esterase B1, and neuroactin genes were involved in permethrin resistance in larval and adult Cx. quinquefasciatus., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Background: The standard operating procedure for testing the susceptibility of adult mosquitoes to neonicotinoid or butenolide insecticides recommends using a vegetable oil ester (Mero) as a surfactant. However, there is growing evidence that this adjuvant contains surfactants that can enhance insecticide activity, mask resistance and bias the bioassay., Methodology/principal Findings: Using standard bioassays, we tested the effects of commercial formulations of vegetable oil-based surfactants similar to Mero on the activity of a spectrum of active ingredients including four neonicotinoids (acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam) and two pyrethroids (permethrin and deltamethrin). We found that three different brands of linseed oil soap used as cleaning products drastically enhanced neonicotinoid activity in Anopheles mosquitoes. At 1% (v/v), the surfactant reduced the median lethal concentration, LC50, of clothianidin more than 10-fold both in susceptible and in resistant populations of Anopheles gambiae. At 1% or 0.5% (v/v), linseed oil soap restored the susceptibility of adult mosquitoes fully to clothianidin, thiamethoxam and imidacloprid and partially to acetamiprid. By contrast, adding soap to the active ingredient did not significantly affect the level of resistance to permethrin or deltamethrin suggesting that vegetable oil-based surfactants specifically enhance the potency of some classes of insecticides., Conclusions/significance: Our findings indicate that surfactants are not inert ingredients, and their use in susceptibility testing may jeopardize the ability to detect resistance. Further research is needed to evaluate the potential, the limitations and the challenges of using some surfactants as adjuvants to enhance the potency of some chemicals applied in mosquito control., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Ashu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Competing Interests: DP was employed by Giuliani Spa. FR, RC and AT serve as a consultant for Giuliani SpA. The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.

Background: Increasing evidence has sparked a debate on the loss of sensitivity of scabies mites to conventional permethrin therapy. Mutations in the voltage-sensitive sodium channels (VSSC) were associated with knockdown resistance (kdr) in many arthropods, but have never been identified in Sarcoptes scabiei variatio (var.) hominis mites., Objectives: To identify factors contributing to therapy failure., Methods: Sixty-seven mites were collected from 64 scabies-infested patients in Vienna, Austria, of whom 85.9% were refractory to prior permethrin-based treatments, and genotyped for the presence of nucleotide polymorphisms in Domain II of the VSSC, known to be associated with kdr. Information regarding previous antiscabietic therapies, decontamination procedures and possible re-infestations by contacts as well as the response to re-imposed therapies were obtained., Results: Sequence alignment comparisons revealed previously unidentified mutations in the coding region of Domain II of the VSSC. A novel A1663T transversion was detected in 97.0% of the mites, resulting in a non-synonymous substitution from methionine to leucine, M918L, a mutation known to confer kdr in other arthropods. In addition, a synonymous G1659A transition was identified in one mite, which otherwise showed a nucleotide sequence identical to the wild-type reference. No major inconsistencies were observed within the previous therapeutic and decontamination procedures, which could have accounted for the observed non-responsiveness to permethrin-based therapies. Subsequent cure of infestation was achieved in 65.6% of the participants, predominantly by combination therapies with topical permethrin and systemic ivermectin. However, in 14.6% of the cured cases, permethrin monotherapy sufficed for eradication of scabies, albeit in some cases prolonged exposure was necessary., Conclusions: The kdr-associated M918L mutation in the VSSC gene has now emerged in S. scabiei var. hominis mites. Hence, loss of sensitivity to permethrin due to kdr-type resistance may be more prevalent than anticipated and may be decisive for the therapy responsiveness of scabies-infested patients., (© 2023 The Authors. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology.)

This study investigated the dynamics in pyrethriod resistance and the presence/frequencies of L1014F knockdown resistance mutant allelles in Culex quinquefasciatus vector populations from Uruan Local Government Area of AkwaIbom State, Southern Nigeria between the months of March and November, 2021. Uruan LGA is among the endemic LGAs for lymphatic filariasis in AkwaIbomState. Female Anopheles mosquitoes from Eman Uruan, Ituk Mbang and Idu Uruan were exposed to permethrin, deltamethrin and alphacypermethrin in CDC insecticide coated bottles for susceptibility bioassay following standard protocols. The mosquitoes were obtained as aquatic forms from the study sites and reared under laboratory conditions to adults. The adult mosquitoes were used for this study. All the mosquitoes used for the insecticide susceptibility bioassay were morphologically identified. Standard Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used for authenticating the Culex quinquefasciatus species. A portion of the vgsc (917 bp) gene spanning the entire intron and the exon containing the L1014F mutation associated with knockdown resistance (kdr) in the vectorswere amplified using Allele-SPECIFIC POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (AS-PCR) in order to detect target site insensitivity in the vectors from the study sites. Results obtained revealed that vectors from all the study sites were resistant to permethrin insecticide (mortality rate: 18-23%). Suspected resistance (mortality rate: 90-93%) to deltamethrin and low resistance (mortality rate: 82-85%) to alphacypermethrin insecticides were detected. knockdown was more rapid with deltamethrin and alphacypermethrin than with permethrin across the study sites considering their KDT 50 and KDT 95 . The frequency of the resistant phenotypes ranged from 35.14 to 55.3% across the study sites with a net of 45.1% resistant phenotype recorded in this study. The 1014F allelic frequency calculated from Hardy-Weinberg principle for vector populations across the study sites ranged from 0.500 (50.00%) to 0.7763 (77.63%). All populations witnessed significant (p < 0.05) deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in the distribution of these alleles. The findings of this study show that there is a tendency to record an entire population of resistant vectors in this study area over time due to natural selection. The public health implication of these findings is that the use of pyrethroid based aerosols, coils, sprays, LLITNs and others for the purpose of controlling vectors of lymphatic filariasis and other diseases may be effort in futility., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Head lice (Pediculus humanus capitis ) are a major global concern, and there is growing evidence of an increase in head lice prevalence among Saudi schoolchildren. The purpose of this study is to investigate the prevalence of an insecticidal resistance mutation in head lice collected from schoolchildren. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to amplify a segment of the voltage-gated sodium channel gene subunit to assess the prevalence and distribution of the kdr T917I mutation in head lice. Subsequently, the restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) patterns revealed two genotypic forms: homozygous-susceptible (SS) and homozygous-resistant (RR). The results showed that 17 (37.80%) of the 45 samples were SS, whereas 28 (62.2%) were RR and T917I and L920F point mutations were found in the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of RR. Compared to other nations, the frequency of permethrin resistance mutation in the head louse population in Saudi Arabia was low. This study provides the first evidence of permethrin resistance mutation in human head lice in Saudi Arabia. The findings of this study will highlight the rising incidence of the kd r mutation in head lice in Saudi Arabia., Competing Interests: The authors declare there are no competing interests., (©2023 Alsaady et al.)

Background: Pyrethroids are among the most applied adulticides worldwide to control mosquito vectors for prevention of arboviral diseases transmission. However, pesticide resistance development in a mosquito population could lead to decreased control efficacy. While most studies investigate the resistant genotype (i.e. kdr, CYP450, etc.) as explanatory variables, few field efficacy studies have measured pesticide quantities deposited at different distances from the sprayer in association with observed mosquito mortality. The current study determined field delivered amounts of an applied ULV permethrin/PBO formulation (31% permethrin + 66% piperonyl butoxide) by GC/MS and estimated practical resistance ratios using caged mosquito females., Results: For field samples, the extraction method recovered 78 ± 3.92-108 ± 8.97% of the permethrin/PBO formulation when utilizing the peaks of PBO from GC/MS to estimate the concentrations of adulticide deposited near the mosquito cages. The field bioassay showed that the spatial distribution of permethrin/PBO formulation was heterogeneous among three pseudo-replicates within the same distance. Within the quantifiable permethrin/PBO range of 15.7-51.4 ng/cm 2 , field-collected mosquito mortalities started at 64% and linearly increased reaching 100% only in two areas, while all Sebring susceptible mosquitoes died. The field LC 95 resistance ratio (RR) of F 0 Cx. quinquefasciatus ranged from 2.65-3.51, falling within the 95% CI of RR 95 estimated by laboratory vial assays. Tests with and without PBO indicated P450's enzymes contributed to field resistance., Conclusion: Results showed the suitability of the collection and quantification method to estimate the field resistance ratio at the applied pesticide rate. Pesticide quantification would also allow the association of the known frequencies of resistance mechanisms (e.g. kdr, CYP450) with field mortalities to estimate the resistance level conferred by such mechanisms. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry., (© 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.)

Synthetic insecticides are the primary vector control method used globally. However, the widespread use of insecticides is a major cause of insecticide-resistance in mosquitoes. Hence, this study aimed at elucidating permethrin and temephos-resistant protein expression profiles in Ae. aegypti using quantitative proteomics. In this study, we evaluated the susceptibility of Ae. aegypti from Penang Island dengue hotspot and non-hotspot against 0.75% permethrin and 31.25 mg/l temephos using WHO bioassay method. Protein extracts from the mosquitoes were then analysed using LC-ESI-MS/MS for protein identification and quantification via label-free quantitative proteomics (LFQ). Next, Perseus 1.6.14.0 statistical software was used to perform differential protein expression analysis using ANOVA and Student's t-test. The t-test selected proteins with≥2.0-fold change (FC) and ≥2 unique peptides for gene expression validation via qPCR. Finally, STRING software was used for functional ontology enrichment and protein-protein interactions (PPI). The WHO bioassay showed resistance with 28% and 53% mortalities in adult mosquitoes exposed to permethrin from the hotspot and non-hotspot areas. Meanwhile, the susceptibility of Ae. aegypti larvae revealed high resistance to temephos in hotspot and non-hotspot regions with 80% and 91% mortalities. The LFQ analyses revealed 501 and 557 (q-value <0.05) differentially expressed proteins in adults and larvae Ae. aegypti. The t-test showed 114 upregulated and 74 downregulated proteins in adult resistant versus laboratory strains exposed to permethrin. Meanwhile, 13 upregulated and 105 downregulated proteins were observed in larvae resistant versus laboratory strains exposed to temephos. The t-test revealed the upregulation of sodium/potassium-dependent ATPase β2 in adult permethrin resistant strain, H15 domain-containing protein, 60S ribosomal protein, and PB protein in larvae temephos resistant strain. The downregulation of troponin I, enolase phosphatase E1, glucosidase 2β was observed in adult permethrin resistant strain and tubulin β chain in larvae temephos resistant strain. Furthermore, the gene expression by qPCR revealed similar gene expression patterns in the above eight differentially expressed proteins. The PPI of differentially expressed proteins showed a p-value at <1.0 x 10-16 in permethrin and temephos resistant Ae. aegypti. Significantly enriched pathways in differentially expressed proteins revealed metabolic pathways, oxidative phosphorylation, carbon metabolism, biosynthesis of amino acids, glycolysis, and citrate cycle. In conclusion, this study has shown differentially expressed proteins and highlighted upregulated and downregulated proteins associated with insecticide resistance in Ae. aegypti. The validated differentially expressed proteins merit further investigation as a potential protein marker to monitor and predict insecticide resistance in field Ae. aegypti. The LC-MS/MS data were submitted into the MASSIVE database with identifier no: MSV000089259., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Shettima et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Aim: The rise in rice production in the district of Malanville, Northen Benin, is a present concern, as it has resulted in the widespread usage of pesticides for crop protection. This could impact human health but also life cycle of Anopheles gambiae , the main vector of malaria., Methods: Therefore, insecticide susceptibility bioassays were carried out on populations of An. gambiae s.l aged to 3-5 days old (two from areas where insecticide is highly used and other two areas of low insecticide use) and subjected to insecticide-impregnated papers (Permethrin 0.75%; deltamethrin 0.05%; DDT 4% and bendiocarb 0.1%) following WHO protocol. Polymerase Chain Reactions (PCRs) were used for the detection of Acethlylcholinestrase (Ace-1) and the knock down resistance (kdr) L1014F mutations in An. gambiae populations. Finally, indirect bioassays were conducted for the investigating on the factors affecting the life cycle of An. gambiae due to the use of pesticides., Results: An. gambiae from the four sites were resistant to DDT (6 to 8% and 10 to 14% respectively from areas of high and low dose), pyrethroids (22 to 26% and 30 to 36% for permethrin, from areas of high and low dose respectively and 66 to 70% and 72 to 80% for deltamethrin, from high and low dose) but susceptible to carbamate. The kdr L1014F mutation was detected in An. gambiae populations (0.88 to 0.90 and 0.84 to 0.88 from high and low dose, respectively). The ace-1 was detected at low frequencies (<0.002). Bioassays on the impacts of the use of pesticides in the life cycle of An. gambiae showed that soil substrates with pesticides residues have a negative impact on the life cycle eggs of An. gambiae ., Conclusion: These findings confirmed the negative impacts of pesticides use in rice farming and its impacts on the life cycle of An. gambiae ., Competing Interests: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest associated with this study., (© 2023 Kamuzu University of Health Sciences.)

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are major players in cellular responses to xenobiotic compounds and toxins. However, the role of miRNAs in pyrethroid pesticide-induced cancer progression remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the function of miR-96-5p in permethrin-induced proliferation and migration in breast cancer cells. In our study, the expression of miR-96-5p was upregulated in permethrin-treated MCF-7 cells. MiR-96-5p promoted MCF-7 cell proliferation and migration, accompanied bychanges in the expression of proteins involved in cell proliferation, migration, and apoptosis. Homeobox A5 (HOXA5) was identified as a direct target of miR-96-5p. HOXA5 silencing had the opposite effects with miR-96-5p inhibition. In conclusion, these results suggest that miR-96-5p is involved in permethrin-promoted proliferation and migration of breast cancer cells by targeting HOXA5.

Background: Insecticide resistance among malaria-vector species is a pervasive problem that might jeopardise global disease-control efforts. Novel vector-control tools with different modes of action, including long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) incorporating new active ingredients, are urgently needed to delay the evolution and spread of insecticide resistance. We aimed to measure phenotypic and genotypic insecticide-resistance profiles among wild Anopheles collected over 3 years to assess the longitudinal effects of dual-active-ingredient LLINs on insecticide resistance., Methods: For this analysis, data nested in a 3-year, four parallel-arm, superiority cluster-randomised controlled trial (cRCT) in Tanzania, collected from 84 clusters (39 307 households) formed of 72 villages in the Misungwi district, were used to measure insecticide-resistance profiles among female Anopheles mosquitoes via insecticide-resistance bioassays and quantitative RT-PCR of metabolic-resistance genes. Wild, blood-fed, indoor-resting mosquitoes were collected annually during the rainy seasons from house walls in clusters from all four trial groups. Mosquitoes were morphologically identified as An gambiae sensu lato (SL) or An funestus SL before separate bioassay testing. The primary outcomes were lethal-dose values for α-cypermethrin, permethrin, and piperonyl butoxide pre-exposure plus permethrin-resistance intensity bioassays, mortality 72 h after insecticidal exposure for chlorfenapyr bioassays, fertility reduction 72 h after insecticidal exposure for pyriproxyfen bioassays, and fold change in metabolic-enzyme expression relative to an insecticide-susceptible laboratory strain. All primary outcomes were measured in An funestus SL 1 year, 2 years, and 3 years after LLIN distribution. Primary outcomes were also assessed in An gambiae SL if enough mosquitoes were collected. The cRCT is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03554616)., Findings: Between May 24, 2019, and Oct 25, 2021, 47 224 female Anopheles were collected for resistance monitoring. In the pyrethroid (PY)-LLIN group, there were significant increases in α-cypermethrin-resistance intensity (year 1 LD50=9·52 vs year 2 76·20, p<0·0001) and permethrin-resistance intensity (year 1 13·27 vs year 2 35·83, p=0·0019) in An funestus SL. In the pyriproxyfen PY-LLIN group, there was similar increase in α-cypermethrin-resistance intensity (year 1 0·71 vs year 2 81·56, p<0·0001) and permethrin-resistance intensity (year 1 5·68 vs year 2 50·14, p<0·0001). In the piperonyl butoxide PY-LLIN group, α-cypermethrin-resistance intensity (year 1 33·26 vs year 3 70·22, p=0·0071) and permethrin-resistance intensity (year 1 47·09 vs year 3 2635·29, p<0·0001) also increased over time. In the chlorfenapyr PY-LLIN group, there were no effects on α-cypermethrin-resistance intensity (year 1 0·42 vs year 3 0·99, p=0·54) or permethrin-resistance intensity (data were not estimable due to nearly 100% mortality). There were also minimal reductions in chlorfenapyr susceptibility. However, in the chlorfenapyr PY-LLIN group, a significant decline in piperonyl-butoxide synergy was seen by year 3 (year 1 0·02 vs year 3 0·26, p=0·020). Highly over-expressed detoxification enzymes showed dynamic patterns of selection throughout the trial., Interpretation: Our phenotypic data supports trial epidemiological findings; chlorfenapyr PY-LLINs provided superior protection from malaria across multiple transmission seasons, with few effects on insecticide-resistance selection. Rapid pyrethroid-resistance intensification in the piperonyl butoxide PY-LLIN group and pre-existing tolerance of pyriproxyfen in vector populations might explain the poorer performance of these two interventions regarding malaria outcomes. Further work is required to elucidate the potential mechanisms driving cross-resistance between pyrethroids and novel active ingredients to better inform the design of pre-emptive resistance-management strategies., Funding: UK Department for International Development; UK Medical Research Council; Wellcome Trust; UK Department of Health and Social Care; UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office; and The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation via the Innovative Vector Control Consortium., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests We declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 license. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

As observed in many locations worldwide, resistance to pyrethroids is common in Aedes aegypti (L.) in the southern United States and northern Mexico. Strong resistance in Aedes albopictus (Skuse) is less common and is not as well characterized. These 2 species have been undergoing range expansion and are sympatric in many locations including Houston, Texas. They are often collected from the same locations and lay eggs in the same larval habitats. In this study, we colonized both Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus from 4 locations in Houston and characterized insecticide resistance using permethrin as a model pyrethroid. We found differences in resistance intensity between the species at all 4 sites. Within the Ae. aegypti, resistance ratios ranged from 3.5- to 30.0-fold when compared to the ORL1952 laboratory susceptible strain. Expression of several P450s was higher than in the ORL1952 strain, but the pattern was similar between the field strains of Ae. aegypti. Higher resistance ratios did correlate with increasing percentages of the dilocus knockdown resistance (kdr) genotype. In contrast, Ae. albopictus from the 4 locations all had very low resistance ratios (<4-fold) when compared to the same laboratory susceptible strain. Five years later, we performed additional collections and characterization from the most resistant location to assess the temporal persistence of this difference in resistance between the species. The same pattern of high resistance in Ae. aegypti and low resistance in sympatric Ae. albopictus remained 5 yr later and this may have implications for operational efficacy., (Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America 2023.)

Exotic ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), such as Xylosandrus crassiusculus (Motschulsky), Xylosandrus germanus (Blandford), and Xylosandrus compactus (Eichoff) are serious pests in southeastern ornamental nurseries. Preventative pyrethroid trunk sprays effectively reduce boring damage. However, it is unclear how pyrethroids such as permethrin prevent attack. Thus, the objective was to determine how permethrin-treated bolts interact with invading ambrosia beetles. In 2022, a study with 2 independent trials was conducted in a nursery on red maple (Acer rubrum L.), bolts during March and April, respectively. The treatments were (i) nonbaited, nontreated bolt, (ii) ethanol baited bolt, (iii) nonbaited bolt + glue [painted on bolt], (iv) ethanol baited bolt + glue, (v) ethanol baited bolt + glue + permethrin, (vi) ethanol baited bolt + glue + permethrin + verbenone, and (vii) ethanol baited bolt + glue + verbenone. Ambrosia beetles trapped on glue, beetles which fell into the pail with soap solution under the bolts, and entry holes on bolts were quantified. Permethrin prevented beetle attacks but did not reduce the number of ambrosia beetles landing on the treated bolts. Verbenone reduced ambrosia beetles from landing on the bolts but did not prevent boring into bolts. The numbers of ambrosia beetles in soapy water were not significantly different among treatments. Ambrosia beetles are landing on permethrin-treated bolts but not boring into the bolts, implying that fresh permethrin residues may not be necessary for ambrosia beetle management., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America.)

Background & Objectives: Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti is a primary vector responsible for the transmission of various arboviral diseases in India. Without an effective drug or vaccine against these diseases, chemical insecticide-based vector control supplemented with source reduction remains the best option for their effective management. The development of insecticide resistance due to the continuous use of insecticides might affect the control operations., Methods: Adults and larvae of Aedes aegypti were collected from different localities in Delhi. Larvae were exposed to discriminating (0.02mg/l) and application (1mg/l) doses of temephos. WHO tube assay was conducted for F1 adults using impregnated insecticide papers of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), malathion, deltamethrin, permethrin, cyfluthrin, and lambda-cyhalothrin., Results: Larvae of Ae. aegypti were found resistant (76.0%) to the discriminating dose of temephos, whereas suscep-tible (100.0%) to the application dose of the temephos. Adult Aedes (Fl) mosquitoes were resistant to DDT (23.7%), malathion (90.5%), deltamethrin (76.0%), permethrin (96.2 %) cyfluthrin (85.5%), and lambda-cyhalothrin (94.0%)., Interpretation & Conclusion: Indoor residual spray is not used in Delhi for vector control. Resistance in Aedes might be due to pesticide usage for agricultural activities in peripheral regions of Delhi. There is a need to investigate more on the insecticide resistance mechanisms for indirect resistance development. Understanding the insecticide susceptibility status of urban vectors is critical for planning effective control strategies., Competing Interests: None

Head louse infestations remain a global public-health concern due to increased resistance of lice to artificial pediculicides. In Thailand, there is a lack of comparative data on the current efficacy of pediculicides for treating head lice. In this study, we explored the status of botanical and toxic synthetic pediculicides with that of 4% dimeticone liquid gel for treating head lice in Thailand. The ex-vivo pediculicidal activity of various pediculicidal shampoos available at drugstores in Thailand was assessed and compared with that of 4% dimeticone liquid gel. The shampoos chosen were based on active ingredients toxic to lice (1% permethrin, 0.6% carbaryl, 0.15% Stemona root crude extract, or mixed plant extracts), whereas dimeticone acts physically on lice. We found that exposure to 4% dimeticone liquid gel following the manufacturer's instructions completely killed 100% of head lice in 15 min, whereas other pediculicide products failed to kill the great majority of head lice, whether treatment was for 10 min (resulting in 0% to 50.0% mortality) or 30 min (resulting in 17.0% to 60.0% mortality). We also extended a clinical assessment to confirm the efficacy of 1% permethrin for treating head lice in infested schoolchildren. In this clinical assessment, none of the 26 children treated with 1% permethrin shampoo achieved a cure after two applications. These results highlight that 4% dimeticone demonstrated a higher ex-vivo pediculicidal efficacy compared to both chemical and botanical pediculicides in Thailand. Conversely, 1% permethrin showed low efficacy in both laboratory and clinical assessments. Given its physical mode of action, 4% dimeticone merits consideration as an alternative treatment option for lice in Thailand, particularly in cases where treatment with toxic pediculicides has proven ineffective., Competing Interests: The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. Any mention of the trademark in this document is purely informational and is not meant to be used for profit or to infringe upon the legal rights of the trademark’s owner. This article is simply distributed for scientific purpose., (Copyright: © 2023 Yingklang et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Owing to their wide range of applications in the control of ticks and insects in horticulture, forestry, agriculture and food production, pyrethroids pose a significant threat to the environment, including a risk to human health. Hence, it is extremely important to gain a sound understanding of the response of plants and changes in the soil microbiome induced by permethrin. The purpose of this study has been to show the diversity of microorganisms, activity of soil enzymes and growth of Zea mays following the application of permethrin. This article presents the results of the identification of microorganisms with the NGS sequencing method, and of isolated colonies of microorganisms on selective microbiological substrates. Furthermore, the activity of several soil enzymes, such as dehydrogenases (Deh), urease (Ure), catalase (Cat), acid phosphatase (Pac), alkaline phosphatase (Pal), β -glucosidase (Glu) and arylsulfatase (Aryl), as well as the growth of Zea mays and its greenness indicators (SPAD), after 60 days of growth following the application of permethrin, were presented. The research results indicate that permethrin does not have a negative effect on the growth of plants. The metagenomic studies showed that the application of permethrin increases the abundance of Proteobacteria , but decreases the counts of Actinobacteria and Ascomycota . The application of permethrin raised to the highest degree the abundance of bacteria of the genera Cellulomonas , Kaistobacter , Pseudomonas , Rhodanobacter and fungi of the genera Penicillium , Humicola , Iodophanus , Meyerozyma . It has been determined that permethrin stimulates the multiplication of organotrophic bacteria and actinomycetes, decreases the counts of fungi and depresses the activity of all soil enzymes in unseeded soil. Zea mays is able to mitigate the effect of permethrin and can therefore be used as an effective phytoremediation plant.

The study evaluates the resistance and susceptibility of adult female Anopheles gambiae s. l., Aedes aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus mosquitoes sourced within Osogbo metropolis, Osun State, Nigeria to four groups of insecticides [Permethrin, Deltamethrin, Pirimiphos-methyl and DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)] and the distribution of their larval habitat within the metropolis. Mosquito larvae of the three genera were collected during the wet season and reared to adult stage in the laboratory. Emerged adult female mosquitoes were exposed to insecticide impregnated papers of the four insecticide groups for 60mins using WHO kits to determine the knock down rate (kdr). Thereafter, they were transferred into holding tubes and left for 24hrs to assess their resistance and susceptibility according to the WHO protocol. Four types of larval habitats were identified (tires, ground pools, gutters and plastic containers). Anopheles gambiae s. l. showed the highest resistance to Permethrin (49%) (p = 0.04, p<0.05) while the highest susceptibility was recorded with Pirimiphos-methyl (69%) with the lowest against Permethrin (16%) (P = 0.002; p<0.05). The highest resistance of A. aegypti was against OC-Control (45%) (p = 0.031; p<0.05). Permethrin had the highest susceptibility (60%) against A. aegypti while OC-control had the lowest (11%) (p = 0.005; p< 0.05). Culex quinquefasciatus had a lower resistance to OC-control (38%) as compared with Aedes aegypti (45%). However, it was least susceptible to Pirimiphos-methyl (52%) and DDT (17%) respectively (p = 0.013; p<0.05). The susceptibility of A. gambiae s. l. and C. quinquefasciatus to Pirimiphos-methyl and A. aegypti to Permethrin is an indication of the possibility of success if employed for vector control of A. gambiae s. l., C. quinquefasciatus and A. aegypti respectively. This could be through their inclusion as active ingredients in insecticide treated nets (ITNs) and indoor residual spray (IRS) with a view to abating malaria and other life-threatening mosquito-borne diseases constituting global public health scourge., Competing Interests: The authors have declared no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Busari et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

The aim of the study was to evaluate the bio-efficacy of two different acaricides against mobile stages of hard ticks Ixodes ricinus, Dermacentor marginatus, and Haemaphysalis punctata in their natural habitats. The study was conducted during 2020 and 2021 at localities populated by I. ricinus as the predominant species, at which the presence of Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia garinii, and Borrelia lusitaniae was confirmed. During the first investigation year, a combination of two pyrethroids, permethrin, and tetramethrin, with an insecticide synergist piperonyl butoxide (trade name: Perme Plus®) was tested. At the first evaluation, 24 h after the treatment with Perme Plus®, the efficacy expressed as a reduction rate of the population density was within the interval of satisfying performance (70-90%) at all localities, while the highest efficacy (97.8%) was recorded on the 14th post-treatment day. In the second investigation year, the formulation based on lambda-cyhalothrin (trade name: Icon® 10CS) was used. On the first post-treatment evaluation day, satisfying effects were also demonstrated. The highest recorded efficacy rate of lambda-cyhalothrin (94.7%) was recorded on the 14th post-treatment day. Both tested acaricides manifested satisfying initial acaricidal effects against mobile stages of ticks and provided long-term effects. Comparison of the regression trend lines of population reduction revealed that satisfying effects of treatment with Perme Plus® lasted until the 17th post-treatment day, while in the case of Icon® 10CS, the residual effects were significantly prolonged (30 days)., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Background: Outbreaks of Aedes-borne arboviral diseases are becoming rampant in Africa. In Ghana, there is no organized arboviral control programme with interventions restricted to mitigate outbreaks. Insecticide application is a crucial part of outbreak responses and future preventative control measures. Thus, knowledge of the resistance status and underlying mechanisms of Aedes populations is required to ensure optimal insecticide choices. The present study assessed the insecticide resistance status of Aedes aegypti populations from southern Ghana (Accra, Tema and Ada Foah) and northern Ghana (Navrongo) respectively., Methods: Phenotypic resistance was determined with WHO susceptibility tests using Ae. aegypti collected as larvae and reared into adults. Knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations were detected using allele-specific PCR. Synergist assays were performed with piperonyl butoxide (PBO) to investigate the possible involvement of metabolic mechanisms in resistance phenotypes., Results: Resistance to DDT was moderate to high across sites (11.3 to 75.8%) and, for the pyrethroids deltamethrin and permethrin, moderate resistance was detected (62.5 to 88.8%). The 1534C kdr and 1016I kdr alleles were common in all sites (0.65 to 1) and may be on a trajectory toward fixation. In addition, a third kdr mutant, V410L, was detected at lower frequencies (0.03 to 0.31). Pre-exposure to PBO significantly increased the susceptibility of Ae. aegypti to deltamethrin and permethrin (P < 0.001). This indicates that in addition to kdr mutants, metabolic enzymes (monooxygenases) may be involved in the resistance phenotypes observed in the Ae. aegypti populations in these sites., Conclusion: Insecticide resistance underpinned by multiple mechanisms in Ae. aegypti indicates the need for surveillance to assist in developing appropriate vector control strategies for arboviral disease control in Ghana., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

As resistance to the limited number of insecticides available for medical and veterinary pests becomes more widespread, there is an urgent need for new insecticides and synergists on the market. To address this need, we conducted a study to assess the toxicity of three monoterpenoids-carvone, menthone, and fenchone-in comparison to permethrin and methomyl against adults of two common pests: the yellow fever mosquito ( Aedes aegypti ) and the house fly ( Musca domestica ). We also examined the potential for these monoterpenoids to enhance the effectiveness of permethrin and methomyl when used together. Finally, we evaluated the ability of each monoterpenoid to inhibit acetylcholinesterase, comparing them to methomyl. While all three monoterpenoids performed relatively poorly as topical insecticides (LD 50 > 4000 ng/mg on M. domestica ; >6000 ng/mg on Ae. aegypti ), they synergized both permethrin and methomyl as well as or better than piperonyl butoxide (PBO). Carvone and menthone yielded synergistic co-toxicity factors (23 and 29, respectively), which were each higher than PBO at 24 h. Currently, the mechanism of action is unknown. During preliminary testing, symptoms of acetylcholinesterase inhibition were identified, prompting further testing. Acetylcholinesterase inhibition did not appear to explain the toxic or synergistic effects of the three monoterpenoids, with IC 50 values greater than 1 mM for all, compared to the 2.5 and 1.7 µM for methomyl on Aedes aegypti and Musca domestica , respectively. This study provides valuable monoterpenoid toxicity and synergism data on two pestiferous insects and highlights the potential for these chemistries in future pest control formulations.

Resistance to common pyrethroids, such as deltamethrin and permethrin is widespread in the malaria mosquito Anopheles funestus and mainly conferred by upregulated cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s). In the pyrethroid resistant laboratory strain An. funestus FUMOZ-R the duplicated genes CYP6P9a and CYP6P9b are highly upregulated and have been shown to metabolize various pyrethroids, including deltamethrin and permethrin. Here, we recombinantly expressed CYP6P9a and CYP6P9b from An. funestus using a baculovirus expression system and evaluated the interaction of the multifluorinated benzyl pyrethroid transfluthrin with these enzymes by different approaches. First, by Michaelis-Menten kinetics in a fluorescent probe assay with the model substrate 7-benzyloxymethoxy-4-trifluoromethylcoumarin (BOMFC), we showed the inhibition of BOMFC metabolism by increasing concentrations of transfluthrin. Second, we tested the metabolic capacity of recombinantly expressed CYP6P9 variants to degrade transfluthrin utilizing UPLC-MS/MS analysis and detected low depletion rates, explaining the virtual lack of resistance of strain FUMOZ-R to transfluthrin observed in previous studies. However, as both approaches suggested an interaction of CYP6P9 variants with transfluthrin, we analyzed the oxidative metabolic fate and failed to detect hydroxylated transfluthrin, but low amounts of an M-2 transfluthrin metabolite. Based on the detected metabolite we hypothesize oxidative attack of the gem-dimethyl substituted cyclopropyl moiety, resulting in the formation of an allyl cation upon ring opening. In conclusion, these findings support the resilience of transfluthrin to P450-mediated pyrethroid resistance, and thus, reinforces its employment as an important resistance-breaking pyrethroid in resistance management strategies to control the major malaria vector An. funestus., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest RN is employed by Bayer AG, a manufacturer of pesticides. MN is a PhD student affiliated with the LSTM and funded by the Innovative Vector Control Consortium (IVCC) and Bayer AG., (Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Rhipicephalus sanguineus s.l. (Latreille), is a vector of multiple disease-causing pathogens to humans and dogs. Permethrin and fipronil are two acaricides used to manage R. sanguineus s.l. infestations. Homeowners have reported treatment failures in managing brown dog ticks using permethrin and fipronil based products. Previous studies demonstrated that high permethrin resistance in some R. sanguineus s.l. populations was due to metabolic detoxification and target site insensitivity. In this study, three R. sanguineus s.l. strains, one from a laboratory colony (NC) and two colonies originally collected from Florida (FL) and California (CA), were evaluated for resistance expression against permethrin and fipronil. Metabolic detoxification mechanisms were evaluated in the FL strain using three synergists, while a polymerase chain reaction assay was used to detect a resistance mutation in all strains. The NC strain was susceptible to both permethrin and fipronil, while both the FL and CA strains exhibited high resistance to permethrin and tolerance to fipronil. The synergist tests and PCR results indicated that the FL strain utilized both metabolic resistance and target site insensitivity against permethrin, while the CA strain was documented to have the target-site insensitivity resistant allele. This study confirmed permethrin resistance in both California and Florida populations and its persistence in Florida populations, although its susceptibility can potentially be increased by adding a synergist. Fipronil resistance was not detected suggesting this acaricide may provide suitable tick control., (© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America.)

Indiscriminate use of insecticides in food storage facilities for controlling insect pests has deleterious effects on the environment and non-targeted organisms in the premises. Continuous use of insecticides may result in resistance development in insect pests, which compel the stakeholders to increase the dosage of insecticides to manage resistant insect pests. The increased dosage of insecticides ultimately may result in contamination of stored food stuff that affects human health. The present study was planned to generate data that will be helpful to delay resistance development and to reduce environmental pollution. A field strain of Sitophilus oryzae, one of the most common insect pests of stored foodstuff, was selected separately with pirimiphos-methyl, permethrin, or spinosad for five consecutive generations. The selected strains were studied for resistance risk assessment, time taken to develop resistance to insecticides after continuous exposure in the selection process, preliminary mechanism of resistance, and whether the development of resistance due to the selection with a particular insecticide could develop cross-resistance to other insecticide or not. In comparison to a laboratory susceptible reference strain, the insecticide-selected strains revealed rapid development of resistance against insecticides as a result of selection process: 31.05-fold resistance to pirimiphos-methyl, 156.49-fold resistance to permethrin, and 65.6-fold resistance to spinosad. The selected strains did not show cross-resistance to insecticides to with these strains were not exposed during selection experiments, i.e., strain selected with pirimiphos-methyl did not show cross-resistance to spinosad and permethrin. In the synergism bioassays, the synergists (S,S,S-tributyl phosphorotrithioate and piperonyl butoxide) significantly reduced resistance of the selected strain against insecticides to with these were selected, revealing the probability of metabolic mechanism of resistance. The present study revealed high risks of resistance development to pirimiphos-methyl, spinosad, and permethrin under consistent selection pressure. Lack of cross-resistance among insecticides provides an opportunity to use insecticides in rotation instead of increasing dosages to manage resistant insects that will ultimately pollute the environment., (© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.)

Objective: To evaluate the safety of repeated applications of permethrin concentrations (0% control, 1.5%, 5%, and 10%) to the necks and faces of horses and assess the efficacy and longevity of permethrin as an equine tick repellent., Animals: 5 healthy adult Quarter Horses., Procedures: Each treatment was applied to the neck of each horse (0.01 m2) 4 times a day, for up to 10 days. An 8-mm biopsy was taken to evaluate postexposure dermal responses. Any treatments that were not withdrawn were applied to a quadrant of the horse's face 4 times a day, for up to 5 days. For tick bioassays, a treatment was applied to 1 leg of a horse and 5 female blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) were evaluated as "repelled" or "not repelled" by the treatment. The bioassays were repeated up to 5 days, but treatment application took place only on the first day of the experiment., Results: Histological results of neck biopsies indicated that more repeated exposures or higher concentrations resulted in more dermal damage. Tick bioassays showed that 5% and 10% permethrin had the greatest efficacy and longevity as a tick repellent, but the differences in tick repellency were not significant overall., Clinical Relevance: While there was a nonsignificant trend of higher permethrin concentrations repelling more ticks with longer-lasting residual repellent effects, higher concentrations also produced greater skin damage after repeated exposures. These opposing findings emphasize the need for better tick prevention and control methods that balance safety and efficacy for the equine community.

Furin is a potential target protein associated with numerous diseases; especially closely related to tumors and multiple viral infections including SARS-CoV-2. Most of the existing efficient furin inhibitors adopt a substrate analogous structure, and other types of small molecule inhibitors need to be discovered urgently. In this study, a high-throughput screening combining virtual and physical screening of natural product libraries was performed, coupled with experimental validation and preliminary mechanistic assays at the molecular level, cellular level, and molecular simulation. A novel furin inhibitor, permethrin, which is a derivative from pyrethrin I generated by Pyrethrum cinerariifolium Trev. was identified, and this study confirmed that it binds to a novel allosteric pocket of furin through non-competitive inhibition. It exhibits a very favorable protease-selective inhibition and good cellular activity and specificity. In summary, permethrin shows a new parent nucleus with a new mode of inhibition. It could be used as a highly promising lead compound against furin for targeting related tumors and various resistant viral infections, including SARS-CoV-2.

Background: Head louse infestation is an important public health problem, and expanding resistance to permethrin is a major challenge to its control. The mapping and detection of pyrethroid resistance are essential to the development of appropriate treatments and ensure the effectiveness of current measures. The aim of this study was to present the phenotypic and genotypic basis of permethrin resistance and identify knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations in head louse populations in northwestern Iran., Methods: Adult head lice were collected from 1059 infested girls in Ardebil, East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan and Zanjan Provinces, northwestern Iran. The toxicity of permethrin and the possible synergistic effect of piperonyl butoxide (PBO) on this toxicity were assessed using bioassays. Fragments of voltage-sensitive sodium channels (vssc) and cytochrome b (cytb) genes were amplified and analyzed for the detection of knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations and mitochondrial groups. Moreover, genotypes of the two hot spot regions of the vssc gene were determined by melting curve analysis of amplicons., Results: A total of 1450 adult head lice were collected during 2016-2021. Live lice were exposed to a dose of 1% permethrin for 12 h, and the median lethal time (LT 50 ) and time to achieve 90% mortality (LT 90 ) were determined to be 6 and 14.8 h, respectively. Topical application of 2 and 16 ng permethrin per louse resulted in 25% and 42.11% mortality, respectively. Pre-exposure of samples to 3% piperonyl butoxide had no synergistic effect on the effects of permethrin. Analysis of the 774-bp vssc gene fragment showed the presence of the M815I, T917I and L920F mutations, wild-type and T917I mutation, in 91.6%, 4.2% and 4.2% of samples, respectively. Investigation of the mitochondrial cytb gene demonstrated the predominance of clade B. The frequency of domain II segment 4 (S4)-S5 kdr genotypes in mitochondrial groups was identical, and heterozygotes were present in 93.5% of samples. A significant difference was detected in the frequency of domain IIS1-S3 kdr genotypes, and the frequency of resistant alleles and heterozygotes was higher in clade B than in clade A., Conclusions: The presence of kdr mutations in the vssc gene and the non-synergist effect of PBO indicate that pyrethroid target site insensitivity is the main resistance mechanism. This phenomenon and the high frequency of resistant alleles necessitate that new pediculosis management programs be developed. Further studies need to be conducted to identify all factors contributing this resistance and to develop alternative pediculicides., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Objectives: To investigate the differential insecticide-susceptibility of two molecular forms of Anopheles subpictus complex (A and B) against DDT and pyrethroids, the occurrence of knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations in these forms, and the association of kdr mutations with insecticide resistance., Methods: Insecticide susceptibility tests of An. subpictus s.l., collected from coastal and inland areas of mainland India, were performed against DDT, permethrin and deltamethrin using the WHO standard insecticide susceptibility test kit. The mosquitoes were characterized for molecular forms using a diagnostic PCR developed in this study. Representative samples of An. subpictus molecular forms A and B were sequenced for a genomic region encompassing the IIS4-5 linker to the IIS6 segments of the voltage-gated sodium channel to identify kdr mutations. A common PIRA-PCR was developed for identifying L1014F-kdr mutation and used for genotyping in both molecular forms of An. subpictus., Results: Molecular form A of An. subpictus was resistant to all three insecticides, i.e., DDT, Permethrin and deltamethrin, whereas Form B was categorized as 'possibly resistant' to these insecticides. Significantly higher mortalities in WHO insecticide susceptibility tests were recorded in Form B compared to Form A in sympatric populations. Molecular characterization of the IIS4-5 linker to IIS-6 segments of the voltage-gated sodium channel revealed the presence of two alternative nucleotide transversions at L1014 residue in Form A, both leading to the same amino acid change, i.e., Leu-to-Phe; however, such mutations could not be observed in Form B. PIRA-PCR-based kdr-genotyping of field populations revealed high frequencies of L1014F-kdr mutations in Form A and the absence of this mutation in Form B. The proportion of L1014F mutation was significantly higher in resistant mosquitoes following insecticide-bioassay with DDT (p<0.0001), permethrin (p<0.001) and deltamethrin (p<0.01) as compared to their susceptible counterparts., Conclusions: Significant differences in insecticide susceptibility were found between two molecular forms of An. subpictus complex in sympatric populations. The L1014F-kdr mutation was observed in Form A only, which was found to be associated with DDT, permethrin and deltamethrin resistance., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Copyright: © 2023 Sindhania et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.)

Pyrethroids are insecticides most commonly used for insect control to boost agricultural production. The aim of the present research was to determine the effect of permethrin and cypermethrin on cultured and non-cultivated bacteria and fungi and on the activity of soil enzymes, as well as to determine the usefulness of Zea mays in mitigating the adverse effects of the tested pyrethroids on the soil microbiome. The analyses were carried out in the samples of both soil not sown with any plant and soil sown with Zea mays . Permethrin and cypermethrin were found to stimulate the multiplication of cultured organotrophic bacteria (on average by 38.3%) and actinomycetes (on average by 80.2%), and to inhibit fungi growth (on average by 31.7%) and the enzymatic activity of the soil, reducing the soil biochemical fertility index (BA) by 27.7%. They also modified the number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) of the Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria phyla and the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota phyla. The pressure of permethrin and cypermethrin was tolerated well by the bacteria Sphingomonas (clone 3214512, 1052559, 237613, 1048605) and Bacillus (clone New.ReferenceOTU111, 593219, 578257), and by the fungi Penicillium (SH1533734.08FU, SH1692798.08FU) and Trichocladium (SH1615601.08FU). Both insecticides disturbed the growth and yielding of Zea mays , as a result of which its yield and leaf greenness index decreased. The cultivation of Zea mays had a positive effect on both soil enzymes and soil microorganisms and mitigated the anomalies caused by the tested insecticides in the microbiome and activity of soil enzymes. Permethrin decreased the yield of its aerial parts by 37.9% and its roots by 33.9%, whereas respective decreases caused by cypermethrin reached 16.8% and 4.3%.

Assessing the genetic diversity of metabolic resistance genes, such as cytochrome P450s, helps to understand the dynamics and evolution of resistance in the field. Here, we analyzed the polymorphisms of CYP6M2 and CYP6P4, associated with pyrethroid resistance in Anopheles coluzzii and Anopheles gambiae , to detect potential resistance markers. Field-caught resistant mosquitos and susceptible lab strains were crossed, and F4 was exposed to permethrin for 15 min and 90 min to discriminate highly susceptible (HS) and highly resistant (HR) mosquitos, respectively. Significant permethrin mortality reduction was observed after pre-exposure to PBO, suggesting the gene involvement of P450s. qPCR analysis revealed significant overexpression of CYP6M2 ( FC = 19.57 [95% CI 13.96-25.18] for An. coluzzii ; 10.16 [7.86-12.46] for An. gambiae ) and CYP6P4 ( FC = 6.73 [6.15-7.30] An. coluzzii ; 23.62 [26.48-20.76] An. gambiae ). Full-gene and ≈1 kb upstream were sequenced. For CYP6M2, the upstream region shows low diversity in HR and HS (overall Hd = 0.49, π = 0.018), whereas the full-gene shows allelic-variation but without evidence of ongoing selection. CYP6P4 upstream region showed a lower diversity in HR (Hd = 0.48) than HS (Hd = 0.86) of An. gambiae . These results highlighted that CYP6P4 -associated resistance is potentially driven by modification in upstream region. However, further work is needed to determine the real causative variants that will help design rapid detection tools.