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Researchers in sport and exercise psychology have shown an enduring interest in mood responses, the study of which relies on well-validated and culturally relevant measures. The current study was a...

Moods have been investigated previously in a range of cultural contexts. In our study, we investigated if six mood profiles previously identified, termed the iceberg, inverse Everest, inverse iceberg, shark fin, submerged, and surface profiles, were also evident among a Lithuanian sample. A Lithuanian translation of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS-LTU) was completed by a sample of 746 participants (male = 199, female = 547) aged from 17–78 years (M = 41.8 years, SD = 11.4 year). Seeded k-means cluster analysis clearly identified the six hypothesized mood profiles, the prevalence of which reflected previous findings. Cluster prevalence varied significantly by sex, age, exercise and smoking status, frequency of overeating, and self-rated health of participants. Male participants and older adults were under-represented for the inverse Everest profile and over-represented for the iceberg profile. Those who reported more healthy habits (i.e., exerciser, non-smoker, rarely overeat) and those reporting better self-rated health were over-represented for the iceberg profile and under-represented for negative mood profiles; namely, the inverse Everest, inverse iceberg, and shark fin profiles. Findings supported the cross-cultural invariance of the mood profile clusters and confirmed the link between unhealthy habits and negative mood profiles. Keywords: affect; emotion; mood profiling; cluster analysis; health; exercise; physical activity.

Self-confidence is a common research topic, and most applied textbooks include interventions designed to enhance athlete confidence. Our purpose was to quantify the self-confidence and sport performance literature using meta-analytic techniques. We also examined potential risk of bias indicators, and the moderation effects of study quality, sport characteristics, timing of confidence measurement, and individual differences among participants. Following a review of two past meta-analyses, a systematic search of APA PsycArticles, ERIC, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, PsychINFO, and SPORTDiscus within the EBSCOhost platform, and some hand searching, 41 articles published between 1986 and 2020 met the inclusion criteria. Collectively, the included studies investigated 3711 athletes from 15 countries across 24 sports. The overall random effects estimate of the relationship (expressed as r) between self-confidence and performance was 0.25 (95% CI 0.19, 0.30), with little evidence of publication bias. The summed total risk of the individual study bias score did not moderate the confidence–performance relationship, whereas significant moderator effects emerged for individual sports (0.29) compared with team sports (0.14), objective (0.29) compared to subjective (0.14) performance measures, and 100% male (0.35) compared to 100% female (0.07) samples. In conclusion, the confidence–performance relationship is small in magnitude, nearly free of bias, and moderated by sport type, performance objectivity, and athlete sex.

Mood can be considered as a diffuse and global emotional state, with both valence and arousal characteristics, that is not directed towards a specific object. Investigation of moods in specific language and cultural contexts relies on the availability of appropriately validated measures. The current study involved the translation and validation of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) from English into Lithuanian. The 24-item, 6-factor scale, referred to as the BRUMS-LTU, was administered to 746 participants who were fluent in Lithuanian (nmen = 199 (26.7%), nwomen = 547 (73.3%); age range = 17–78 years, M = 41.8 years, SD = 11.4 years). Confirmatory factor analysis showed an adequate fit of the hypothesized measurement model to the data (CFI  =  0.954, TLI  = 0 .944, RMSEA  = 0 .060 [CI 0.056, 0.064], SRMR = 0.070) and multi-sample analysis supported configural, metric, scalar, and residual invariance across genders. Concurrent measures (i.e., Perceived Stress Scale, Big Five Personality Test) correlated with subscale scores in line with theoretical predictions, supporting both convergent and divergent validity. Internal consistency coefficients of the six subscales were satisfactory. Mood scores varied significantly by gender, with men generally reporting more positive moods than women. Findings support the adequacy of the psychometric properties of the BRUMS-LTU. Thus, the scale can be recommended for use in further psychological studies of mood in Lithuania and may also be useful for applied practitioners.

Mood measures have been shown to have utility for monitoring risks to mental health and to predict performance among athletes. To facilitate use in a Malaysian context, we tested a Malay-language version of the 24-item Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS), referred to as the Malaysian Mood Scale (MASMS). Following a thorough translation–back-translation process, the 24-item MASMS was administered to 4923 Malay-speaking respondents (2706 males, 2217 females; 2559 athletes, 2364 non-athletes), ranging in age from 17 to 75 years (M = 28.2 years, SD = 9.4 years). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the six-factor MASMS measurement model (CFI = 0.950, TLI = 0.940, RMSEA = 0.056 [CI 0.055, 0.058]). Convergent and divergent validity of the MASMS were supported via relationships with depression, anxiety, and stress measures. Significant differences in mood scores were found between athletes and non-athletes, males and females, and younger and older participants. Tables of normative data and profile sheets for specific groups were generated. We propose that the MASMS is a valid measure that can be used to monitor mental health status among athletes and non-athletes and that facilitates future mood-related research in Malaysia.

Background COVID-19 lockdowns have reduced opportunities for physical activity (PA) and encouraged more sedentary lifestyles. A concomitant of sedentariness is compromised mental health. We investigated the effects of COVID-19 lockdown on PA, sedentary behavior, and mental health across four Western nations (USA, UK, France, and Australia). Methods An online survey was administered in the second quarter of 2020 (N = 2541). We measured planned and unplanned dimensions of PA using the Brunel Lifestyle Physical Activity Questionnaire and mental health using the 12-item General Health Questionnaire. Steps per day were recorded only from participants who used an electronic device for this purpose, and sedentary behavior was reported in hours per day (sitting and screen time). Results In the USA and Australia samples, there was a significant decline in planned PA from pre- to during lockdown. Among young adults, Australians exhibited the lowest planned PA scores, while in middle-aged groups, the UK recorded the highest. Young adults exhibited the largest reduction in unplanned PA. Across nations, there was a reduction of ~ 2000 steps per day. Large increases in sedentary behavior emerged during lockdown, which were most acute in young adults. Lockdown was associated with a decline in mental health that was more pronounced in women. Conclusions The findings illustrate the deleterious effects of lockdown on PA, sedentary behavior, and mental health across four Western nations. Australian young and lower middle-aged adults appeared to fare particularly badly in terms of planned PA. The reduction in steps per day is equivalent to the non-expenditure of ~ 100 kcal. Declines in mental health show how harmful lockdowns can be for women in particular.

Advancements in Mental Skills Training presents contemporary evidence-based intervention approaches from leading sport psychology researchers and practitioners. The book comprehensively examines the use of mental skills training for athletic performance and well-being from a cross-cultural perspective. It begins by introducing theoretical advancements related to mental toughness, cultural factors, performance optimisation and mindfulness. It goes on to examine the technological advancements related to mental skills training, outlining how mobile technologies can be used to measure and train perceptual-cognitive skills, and the effectiveness of virtual reality in mental training. The book concludes by discussing emerging topics, such as how sports psychology can incorporate spirituality, minority groups in sport and the impact of prejudice, and referee career development. This insightful text introduces the potential for sport psychology to be integrated into our daily functioning and provides strategies for athletes to optimize their performance and bolster their mental health. It will be an essential read for all sport psychology researchers as well as professionals working in the field.

This consensus statement is the product of an international Think Tank on the initiative of the International Society of Sport Psychology. The purpose of the Think Tank was to unify major sport psychology organizations in a discussion of the current status and future challenges of applied and research aspects of athlete mental health. The contributors present six propositions and recommendations to inspire sport organizations and researchers. The propositions are: Mental health is a core component of a culture of excellence; Mental health in a sport context should be better defined; Research on mental health in sport should broaden the scope of assessment; Athlete mental health is a major resource for the whole athletic career and life post-athletic career; The environment can nourish or malnourish athlete mental health; and Mental health is everybody’s business but should be overseen by one or a few specified members. It is recommended that researchers unite to develop a more contextualized definition of athlete mental health and more comprehensive strategies of assessment, as well as join forces with sporting organizations to investigate sustainable elite sport environments and the role of the mental health officer. Sport organizations are advised to recognize athlete mental health as a core component of a healthy elite sport system and a key indicator of their effectiveness, support research initiatives, and to promote the mental health literacy of all their staff while engaging a mental health officer with the responsibility to oversee a support system. © 2019 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Funding: The Think Tank that led to this Consensus Statement was supported by grants from Team Denmark and the University of Southern Denmark.

Mood profiling is a popular method of quantifying and classifying feeling states. Previous research has identified several novel mood profiles in predominantly Western English-speaking populations (Parsons-Smith et al., 2017), and replicated the findings in the domain of sport and exercise (Quartiroli et al., 2018; Terry and Parsons-Smith, 2019). The aim of the current study was to investigate if six hypothesized clusters of mood responses were evident in a population of English-speaking sport and non-sport participants in Singapore. A seeded k-means cluster analysis was applied to the mood responses of 1,444 participants (991 male, 440 female, 13 unspecified; aged 18–65 years) who completed the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS; Terry et al., 1999, 2003a). The six hypothesized mood profiles (i.e., iceberg, inverse Everest, inverse iceberg, shark fin, submerged, and surface profiles) were identified clearly. Chi-squared analyses showed unequal distribution of the profiles by gender, age group, ethnicity, education level, and sport participation. Findings support the cross-cultural generalizability of the six mood profiles in English-speaking sport and non-sport samples in Singapore and contribute to investigation into the antecedents, correlates, and consequences of each mood profile.

Objectives To situate the current status of accreditation in four key international societies, ASPASP, FEPSAC, AASP, and ISSP, in a historical backdrop and then to draw on these approaches to propose future directions and developments relating to practical standards. Design A review of the origins and current status of accreditation in four international sport psychology societies is utilized to situate the recent prominence of professional standards and the importance of these in our global professional community. This review is written temporally from past, to present, to future prospects. Method A presentation of societal accreditation foci is situated temporally using the following structure: (a) emergence and historical backdrop from each society, (b) emergence and reasoning for accreditation, (c) current societal standards/status of accreditation, (d) future developments in the society's accreditation system, and (e) reflections and recommendations for global standards, with suggestions of how this might be accomplished. Results The presentation of scholarship is intended to serve as a form of advocacy for improved accreditation standards within the global professional community. The societal perspectives call for a balance between localized cultural infusion and proposed global guidelines upon which professionals might meet a converged reasonable practice threshold. Conclusions Sport psychology accreditation is increasingly important as the applied realm of this profession spans community physical activity/recreation, and developmental and elite/professional sport. Accredited practices must integrate universal and local approaches.

Mood responses are a well-established mental health indicator. Gauging mental health status over time often involves periodic mood assessment using a standardized measure, a process referred to as mood profiling. Comparison of observed mood scores against relevant normative data is central to effective mood profiling. The primary purpose of our study was to improve existing norms for the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) using a large internet sample. The secondary purpose was to discuss how mood profiling can be used to promote sustainable mental health primarily among athletes but also with relevance to non-athletes. The BRUMS was completed via the In The Mood website by 15,692 participants. Significant differences between observed mean scores and existing normative data were evident for all six mood dimensions, prompting norm refinement. Specific group norms were generated to address sex differences in mood responses and differences by athlete/nonathlete status. The revised tables of normative data for the BRUMS should be used by researchers in future investigations of mood responses and by applied practitioners seeking to monitor mood responses as an indicator of mental health status. Applications of mood profiling with elite athletes are exemplified, along with recommendations for using mood profiling in the pursuit of sustainable mental health.

© 2018 Quartiroli, Parsons-Smith, Fogarty, Kuan and Terry. Mood profiling has a long history in the field of sport and exercise. Several novel mood profile clusters were identified and described in the literature recently (Parsons- Smith et al., 2017). In the present study, we investigated whether the same clusters were evident in an Italian-language, sport and exercise context. The Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS; Quartiroli et al., 2017) was administered to 950 Italian-speaking sport participants (659 females, 284 males, 7 unspecified; age range = 16-63 year,M = 25.03, SD = 7.62) and seeded k-means clustering methodology applied to the responses. Six distinct mood profiles were identified, termed the iceberg, inverse iceberg, inverse Everest, shark fin, surface, and submerged profiles, which closely resembled those reported among English-speaking participants (Parsons-Smith et al., 2017). Significant differences were found in the distribution of specific mood profiles across gender and age groups. Findings supported the cross-cultural generalizability of the six mood profiles and offer new research avenues into their antecedents, correlates and behavioral consequences in Italian-language contexts. This study was supported by the Short-Term Grant Scheme (USM304/PPSP/61313041) and Research University’s Individual Grant (1001/PPSP/812149) from the Universiti Sains Malaysia.

In this paper, we propose a framework for the design of massive open online courses (MOOCs) based upon the principles of self-determination theory, which posits a relationship between intrinsic motivation and the basic psychological need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. We also report the results of design-based research that evaluates the application of the framework to a MOOC titled “Elite Sport Performance: Psychological Perspectives”. Satisfying basic psychological needs is theorised as central to course design in order to foster intrinsic motivation, optimise engagement, and improve the retention of course participants. We chronicle the design, implementation, and evaluation of the course, providing examples of support features and learning activities. The course was offered over a period of four months, receiving more than 1000 registrations from across the world. Engagement measures, completion indices, and intrinsic motivation scores are reported as well as sample testimonies from learners. Results offer preliminary evidence that a design framework incorporating self-determination theory has utility in the development of MOOCs that successfully engage learners.

© 2018 Kuan, Morris, Kueh and Terry. Music that is carefully selected to match the requirements of activities and the characteristics of individuals has been shown to produce significant impacts on performance enhancement (Priest et al., 2004). There is also evidence that music can enhance imagery (Grocke and Wigram, 2007), although few studies have investigated the effects of music on imagery in the context of sport skills. In the present study, the effects of relaxing and arousing music during imagery on dart-throwing performance, physiological arousal indices, and competitive state anxiety, were investigated among 63 novice dart throwers. Participants had moderate-to-high imagery ability and were randomly assigned to unfamiliar relaxing music (URM), unfamiliar arousing music (UAM), or no music (NM) groups. Performance was assessed by 40 dart throws at a concentric circles dartboard before and after 12 imagery sessions over 4 weeks. Measures of galvanic skin response (GSR), peripheral temperature (PT), and heart rate (HR) were taken during imagery sessions 1 and 12, and the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised (CSAI-2R) was administered prior to the pre- and post-intervention performance task. Dart-throwing gain scores were significantly higher for URM than for UAM and NM, with no significant difference between UAM and NM (URM = 37.24 ± 5.66, UAM = 17.57 ± 5.30, and NM = 13.19 ± 6.14, F2,62 = 5.03, p = 0.01, η2 = 0.14). GSR, PT, and HR reflected lower arousal for URM than for UAM or NM. Significant decreases in somatic anxiety were evident for URM and UAM but not NM. Significant decreases in cognitive anxiety were evident for URM and NM but not UAM. Significant increases in self-confidence were evident for URM but not UAM or NM. Performance improved in all three conditions but URM was associated with the largest performance gain, the lowest physiological indices of arousal, and the most positive CSAI-2R profiles. Listening to relaxing music during imagery may have benefits for performance in other fine motor skills. The present study was supported by the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme of the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia and Research University’s Individual Grant (USM-RUI) from Universiti Sains Malaysia (1001/PPSP/812149).

The current study presents initial validation statistics for the Italian Mood Scale (ITAMS), a culturally- and linguistically-validated Italian version of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS: Terry and Lane, 2010). The ITAMS was administered to 950 sport participants (659 females), who ranged in age from 16 to 63 years (M = 25.03, SD = 7.62). In the first stage of the validation process, statistical procedures in Mplus were used to evaluate the measurement model. Multigroup exploratory structural equation modeling supported the hypothesized 6-factor measurement model for males and females separately and for the combined sample. Analysis of the scale scores using SPSS provided further support for the construct validity of the ITAMS with hypothesized relationships observed between ITAMS scores and measures of depression and affect. The development and validation of the ITAMS opens the way for mood-related research and sport or exercise interventions requiring mood assessments, in an Italian-language context.

Background: There is growing evidence that online resources used to develop clinical skills among students in the healthcare professions can produce equivalent learning outcomes to traditional face-to-face trainingmethods. Whether clinical competence is retained equally well for online and face-to-face training methods is not yet established. Objectives: The objective of the study was to compare retention of competence in using an IV infusion pump among nursing students trained in its use using three different protocols. Design: A quasi-experimental design was used. Setting: The study was conducted in the School of Nursing and Midwifery at a regional university in Queensland, Australia. Participants: Participants were 102 first year nursing students (female =89, male =13) enrolled in a medications course, ranging in age from 18 to 44 years. Methods: Three groups of participants were trained in the use of an IV infusion pump and competence was assessed following a 26-week period of no access to the pump. Group 1 participants (ONL; n =34) were trained online using an Intravenous Pump Emulator (IVPE); Group 2 participants (ONC; n=38) were trained on campus using an actual IV pump in a traditional face-to-face setting; Group 3 participants (ONL +ONC; n= 30) were trained both on campus using the actual IV pump and online using the IVPE. Results: As hypothesised, no significant differences in learning outcomes, measured by assessment scores out of 80 points, were found between the ONL (M =68.7 ± 5.9) and ONC (M=65.5 ± 11.5; p > 0.05) groups. The ONL +ONC group recorded the highest mean assessment score (M =70.0 ± 5.0) and completed the assessment task significantly faster (p < 0.001) than the other two groups. Conclusions: This study suggests that nursing students retained clinical competence in preparing and administrating IV infusions better when face-to-face and online learning were combined.

The present study tested and extended Lane and Terry’s (2000) conceptual model of mood-performance relationships using a large dataset from an online experiment. Methodological and theoretical advances included testing a more balanced model of pleasant and unpleasant emotions, and evaluating relationships among emotion regulation traits, states and beliefs, psychological skills use, perceptions of performance, mental preparation, and effort exerted during competition. Participants (N = 73,588) completed measures of trait emotion regulation, emotion regulation beliefs, regulation efficacy, use of psychological skills, and rated their anger, anxiety, dejection, excitement, energy, and happiness before completing a competitive concentration task. Post-competition, participants completed measures of effort exerted, beliefs about the quality of mental preparation, and subjective performance. Results showed that dejection associated with worse performance with the no-dejection group performing 3.2% better. Dejection associated with higher anxiety and anger scores and lower energy, excitement, and happiness scores. The proposed moderating effect of dejection was supported for the anxiety-performance relationship but not the anger-performance relationship. In the no-dejection group, participants who reported moderate or high anxiety outperformed those reporting low anxiety by about 1.6%. Overall, results showed partial support for Lane and Terry’s model. In terms of extending the model, results showed dejection associated with greater use of suppression, less frequent use of re-appraisal and psychological skills, lower emotion regulation beliefs, and lower emotion regulation efficacy. Further, dejection associated with greater effort during performance, beliefs that pre-competition emotions did not assist goal achievement, and low subjective performance. Future research is required to investigate the role of intense emotions in emotion regulation and performance.

Building on the work of Terry and colleagues (Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M., Lane, H. J.,Keohane, L. (1999). Development and validation of a mood measure for adolescents. Journal of Sports Sciences, 17, 861-872; Terry, P. C., Lane, A. M.,Fogarty, G. J. (2003). Construct validity of the Profile of Mood States-Adolescents for use with adults. Psychology of SportExercise, 4, 125-139.), the present study examined the validity and internal consistency reliability of the Chinese version of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS-C) among 2,548 participants, comprising adolescent athletes (n = 520), adult athletes (n = 434), adolescent students (n = 673), and adult students (n = 921). Both adolescent and adult athletes completed the BRUMS-C before, during, or after regular training and both adolescent and adult students completed the BRUMS-C in a classroom setting. Confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) provided support for the factorial validity of a 23-item six-factor model, with one item removed from the hypothesised measurement model. Internal consistency reliabilities were satisfactory for all subscales across each of the four samples. Criterion validity was supported with strong relationships between the BRUMS-C, abbreviated POMS, and Chinese Affect Scale consistent with theoretical predictions. Multi-sample CFAs showed the BRUMS-C to be invariant at the configural, metric, strong, and structural levels for all samples. Furthermore, latent mean difference analyses showed that athletes reported significantly higher levels of fatigue than students while maintaining almost the same levels of vigour, and adolescent students reported significantly higher levels of depressed mood than the other three samples.

Researchers show persistent interest in mood responses among athletes and exercisers. Mood profiling has often focused on antecedents and behavioural consequences associated with the iceberg (Morgan, 1980) and inverse iceberg profiles (Terry, 1995). The iceberg profile (high vigour, low tension, depression, anger, fatigue, confusion) is associated with positive mental health and superior performance. The inverse iceberg profile (low vigour, high tension, depression, anger, fatigue, confusion) is associated with risk of psychopathology and used as a diagnostic criterion for overtraining syndrome. Four novel and theoretically meaningful mood profiles, termed the inverse Everest, shark fin, submerged, and surface profiles, were identified recently in the general population (Parsons-Smith, Terry, & Machin, 2017). In the present study, we investigated whether these six mood profiles are also evident in an athletic population.

There is evidence that appropriately structured sport programmes can help young people to build positive life skills while also improving their physical fitness and psychological well-being. Disadvantaged and marginalised young people have relatively low rates of participation in sport, and designing programmes that attract and retain them presents a major challenge. Some success has been reported for programmes involving boxing, but such programmes entail a high potential for injury. The present study assessed the effects of a modified, low-risk form of boxing, known as Box'Tag®, on disadvantaged 11–12-year-olds. Volunteer Grade 7 students (N = 51) participated in an eight-week programmes of two to three sessions per week. Using a matched-pair design to control for effects of gender and risk of social disengagement (at-risk/not-at-risk), participants were assigned to either the Box'Tag® intervention or a control condition, in the form of a largely non-physical social skills programmes called Rock and Wat...

The present study developed and provided initial validation statistics for the Farsi Mood Scale (FARMS), a shortened version of the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) designed for use in an Iranian context. Following translation of the BRUMS into Farsi using the translation-back translation method, the FARMS was administered to 405 Iranian university students (136 males, 269 females; age: range = 18–34 yr., M = 21.1 yr., SD = 2.2). Confirmatory factor analysis provided support for a 14-item, six-factor measurement model. Gender differences in mood responses were found, with males reporting higher vigour scores than females. Athletes reported higher vigour scores than non-athletes. The FARMS showed acceptable psychometric properties and may have several applications among Farsi-speaking populations. A preliminary table of normative data is provided.

[Introduction]: Music has become almost omnipresent in sport and exercise environments. It blares out in gymnasiums, football stadiums and even in swimming pools through underwater speakers. Music is part-and-parcel of the modern-day sporting spectacle, while the advent of the iPod™ has better enabled athletes to cocoon themselves in their own auditory world. Does the use of music in sport actually yield higher performance levels or does it simply make sports participation and training more enjoyable? If music does indeed increase work output or enjoyment of a sporting activity, how can we go about maximising such benefits? These questions will be addressed within this chapter using the authors’ research findings and examples from their applied work with elite athletes.

(2012). Chapter 36 - It’s nice to go traveling, BUT … Routledge Online Studies on the Olympic and Paralympic Games: Vol. 1, Routledge Handbook of Applied Sport Psychology, pp. 345-354.

This is the post-print version of the final paper published in Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. The published article is available from the link below. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted for publication. Copyright @ 2011 Elsevier B.V. Objectives: Music can provide ergogenic, psychological, and psychophysical benefits during physical activity, especially when movements are performed synchronously with music. The present study developed the train of research on synchronous music and extended it to elite athletes. Design: Repeated-measures laboratory experiment. Method: Elite triathletes (n = 11) ran in time to self-selected motivational music, a neutral equivalent and a no-music control during submaximal and exhaustive treadmill running. Measured variables were time-to-exhaustion, mood responses, feeling states, RPE, blood lactate concentration, oxygen consumption and running economy. Results: Time-to-exhaustion was 18.1% and 19.7% longer, respectively, when running in time to motivational and neutral music, compared to no music. Mood responses and feeling states were more positive with motivational music compared to either neutral music or no music. RPE was lowest for neutral music and highest for the no-music control. Blood lactate concentrations were lowest for motivational music. Oxygen consumption was lower with music by 1.0%–2.7%. Both music conditions were associated with better running economy than the no-music control. Conclusions: Although neutral music did not produce the same level of psychological benefits as motivational music, it proved equally beneficial in terms of time-to-exhaustion and oxygen consumption. In functional terms, the motivational qualities of music may be less important than the prominence of its beat and the degree to which participants are able to synchronise their movements to its tempo. Music provided ergogenic, psychological and physiological benefits in a laboratory study and its judicious use during triathlon training should be considered. QAS Centre of Excellence for Applied Sport Science Research

Most people involved in sport freely acknowledge that the quality of their performance is subject to significant fluctuations that are often driven by psychological inconsistencies. Great champions such as Michael Phelps, Maria Sharapova, Cristiano Ronaldo and Rafael Nadal have all used sport psychology techniques to enhance their own impressive performance levels. Applied sport psychology, however, is not necessarily about developing sporting titans or even about performance at all. It is, in the broadest sense, about using psychological principles, knowledge, strategies, and techniques to address any issue in sport. In this presentation, I will trace the historical progress of applied sport psychology from the very earliest writings and investigations in Europe, Asia and North America through to the current state of the art across the globe. Along the way, I will present some of the landmark publications and key developments, address past trends, present challenges and opportunities, and predict future developments in the field. Two enduring challenges for applied sport psychology are, firstly, to educate the sporting community and the general public about what sport psychology can and cannot achieve and, secondly, to ensure that claimed benefits are pitched at the right level and are supported by compelling evidence. Just as, in Greek mythology, Icarus flew too close to the sun, melted the wax that held his wings together and fell to his death, so the profession of applied sport psychology risks losing its credibility if practitioners over-promise on what can realistically be achieved and then fail to deliver on their promises. Equally, if applied sport psychologists downplay the performance gains and the other benefits that their profession can deliver (perhaps the equivalent of Icarus remaining with his feet firmly on the ground) then the sports world will look elsewhere for specialist assistance.

Our research assessed whether mood and emotion can be measured as distinct constructs. Development and validation of the Emotion and Mood Components of Anxiety Questionnaire (EMCA-Q) is reported. We based the questionnaire on a subjective-contextual model of emotion-mood distinctions, which specifies that differentiation of the emotion of anxiety from an anxious mood should reflect an individual's awareness of the context in which the respective feeling states occur. In study 1, we describe the development of the 10-item, two factor EMCA-Q. In study 2, we use confirmatory factor analysis to provide support for the factorial validity of the scale. In study 3, we provide preliminary evidence of construct validity by demonstrating that students preparing to submit their thesis reported significantly higher scores of anxious emotion about their thesis than anxious mood. Findings suggested that emotion and mood might be distinguished empirically in line with theoretical predictions when subjective-contextual information used to distinguish between the two states was assessed.

This special issue of the International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology has been produced to add to the growing literature on the unique and complex challenge of providing sport psychology support for Olympic athletes. McCann’s seminal 2008 paper, 'At the Olympics, Everything is a Performance Issue' cemented the notion that consulting at the Olympic Games is a venture into the unpredictable. The list of Olympic stressors with the capacity to threaten the emotional equilibrium and ultimately the performance of athletes, coaches, and their support teams, is seemingly endless (see Gould & Maynard, 2009; Heberl & Petersen, 2006; SiL Terry, Zhang, Kim, Morris, & Hanrahan, 2014) and hence examples of effective strategies used to prevent or manage them function as valuable resources for students, neophyte practitioners, and fellow professionals alike.

Sport psychologists, in their work as applied practitioners, face a very challenging yet rewarding task in trying to help individual athletes or teams fulfil their athletic potential. For any athlete, there are potentially a wide range of internal and external forces to consider that can exert influence upon performance and psychological wellbeing. The list of factors that impinge upon individual performance grows considerably once the complexities of group dynamics are added, such that when working with teams our professional skills are likely to be severely tested at times. Take this complex challenge and put it into a completely new cultural context and the complexity grows still further; indeed the ground may appear to shift beneath your feet. This chapter has been written to provide guidance for sport psychology practitioners who have occasion to work cross-culturally and who recognise that cultural differences may necessitate significant changes to their normal way of operating.

There has been a substantial increase in the application of sport psychology theory and practice in business settings in recent years. This paper outlines points of intersection and divergence between sport and business, and provides examples from sport that are of use in business settings. This paper also draws upon Orlick’s 2008 evidence-based model of excellence, as a vehicle for illustrating key skills associated with peak performance across a variety of high-stress domains including sport, music, and medicine. We posit that this model can be applied to improving performance in the corporate world. The ‘Wheel of Excellence’ model incorporates seven key elements, with Focus as the hub, in addition to Commitment, Mental Readiness, Positive Images, Confidence, Distraction Control, and Ongoing Learning. Given the close parallels between business and sport psychology, it is anticipated that increasing attention will be devoted to their integration and application crossover in the future.

In this chapter, we have promoted the use of the In the Mood website as a method of providing simple assessments of affective responses, potential impacts of current feelings upon performance and, where appropriate, evidence-based recommendations of affect regulation strategies. Information provided by the In the Mood website offers a valuable catalyst for discussions with athletes about the cause and likely impact of their feelings, and the addition of qualitative information from other sources may produce potent combination of strategies with which to assist athletes to achieve optimal performance.

Background The expansion of online education for nursing students has created the challenge of finding innovative ways to teach clinical skills. An online intravenous pump emulator (IVPE) modelled on actual IV pumps used in clinical healthcare settings was developed to facilitate online education delivery. Objectives The objectives of the study were to implement the online IVPE and evaluate student learning outcomes and perceptions of device use. Design A mixed method, quasi-experimental design was used. Setting The study was conducted in the School of Nursing and Midwifery at a regional university in Queensland, Australia. Participants Participants were 179 first year nursing students enrolled in a medications course, ranging in age from 18 to 44years, of whom 150 were female. Methods Participants were assigned to one of three groups and trained in the use of IV infusion pumps. Group 1 ( n =57) were trained online using the IVPE (ONL); Group 2 ( n =73) were trained on-campus using an actual IV pump (ONC); Group 3 ( n =49) were trained both on-campus using the actual IV pump and online using the IVPE (ONL+ONC). Competence in using the actual IV pump was assessed for all participants at the conclusion of the training period. Results No significant differences in learning outcomes, measured by assessment scores out of 80 points, were found between the ONL ( M =65.5±9.2) and ONC ( M =62.0±14.8; p >.05) groups. Significantly better learning outcomes were evident for the ONL+ONC group ( M =68.7±4.9) compared to the ONC group ( p Conclusions This study highlights that the nursing students became more competent in the skill of preparing and administrating IV infusions when face-to-face and online learning were combined.

In the present study, a measure to assess the motivational qualities of music in exercise was redesigned, extending previous research efforts (Karageorghis et al., 1999). The original measure, the Brunel Music Rating Inventory (BMRI), had shown limitations in its factor structure and its applicability to non-experts in music selection. Redesign of the BMRI used in-depth interviews with eight participants (mean age 31.9 years, s = 8.9 years) to establish the initial item pool, which was examined using a series of confirmatory factor analyses. A single-factor model provided a good fit across three musical selections with different motivational qualities (comparative fit index, CFI: 0.95-0.98; standardized root mean residual, SRMR: 0.03-0.05). The single-factor model also demonstrated acceptable fit across two independent samples and both sexes using one piece of music (CFI: 0.86-1.00; SRMR: 0.04-0.07). The BMRI was designed for experts in selecting music for exercise (e.g. dance aerobic instructors), whereas the BMRI-2 can be used both by exercise instructors and participants. The psychometric properties of the BMRI-2 are stronger than those of the BMRI and it is easier to use. The BMRI-2 provides a valid and internally consistent tool by which music can be selected to accompany a bout of exercise or a training session. Furthermore, the BMRI-2 enables researchers to standardize music in experimental protocols involving exercise-related tasks.

This case study investigated relationships between personality, mood states changes, coping strategies, self-set goals, and self-efficacy in an elite judo player. A transactional perspective of psychological responses over time was used to guide data analysis. The ambient mood is proposed to contribute to the interpretation of, and reaction to, events during competition, which lead to subsequent emotional responses. A male international Judo player completed a number of self-report measures before and during a 4-contest tournament. Measures included the EPQ, MCOPE, Brunel Mood Scale, self-set goals, and self-efficacy for goal attainment. State measures were completed after every contest. Results indicated high scores of self-efficacy to achieve performance goals and outcome goals. Pre-competition mood results indicated high scores on the Vigor and Anger subscales with moderate scores for Tension, and zero scores for Depressed mood, a mood profile that remained relatively stable after winning his first two contests. After losing his third contest, he reported symptoms of Depressed mood and indicated using self-blame as coping strategy during the contest. Before the fourth contest, he coped by using planning and increasing effort. These coping strategies were associated with reductions in Depressed mood and increases in Vigor. After finding out his next contest was against a former World Championship bronze medalist, self-set goals became performance and process with no outcome goal. On losing this contest, scores on the Anger and Depression subscales increased sharply, Fatigue scores increased slightly and Tension and Vigor reduced. Self-blame was used as a coping strategy when experiencing unpleasant emotions. Findings suggest that self-blame was associated with negative psychological states comprising depressed mood. Increasing effort and planning were associated with positive psychological states. Collectively, findings emphasize the value of using a transactional design to explore mood changes over time, and future research should investigate the effectiveness of applied interventions

Concerns have long existed over the participation of adolescent athletes in professional sports. In 2004, the Sony Ericsson WTA Tour (WTA Tour) commissioned a Professional Development Advisory Panel (PDAP) to evaluate the WTA Tour’s age eligibility rule (AER) and professional development programmes (PDPs) for female tennis players since their inception in 1995. More than 75% of the 628 respondents supported the principles of the AER, and 90% indicated a need for PDPs. Statistical analysis of WTA Tour players’ careers found that premature retirements (players leaving the Tour at or before age 21) decreased significantly from 7% before the AER to less than 1% afterward, and median career length increased by 43%. The PDAP recommends that the WTA Tour continues a phased-in, developmentally appropriate AER, enhances the PDPs, and works with other sport governing bodies to coordinate rules and programmes at earlier ages to aid the transition of adolescents into adult sports.

The present study compared mood assessments using two different response time frames. A sample of 136 school children completed the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) daily for 5 days using the response time frame, “How are you feeling right now?” On Day 5, participants completed an additional BRUMS, using the response time frame, “How have you felt over the past week including today?”. “Past week” mood assessments yielded higher scores than multiple “right now” assessments, and were particularly associated with ambient mood for confusion, depression, and vigour. Researchers should give due consideration to the influence of response time frame on mood assessments.

The present study investigated the influence of personality on exercise-induced mood changes. It was hypothesised that (a) exercise would be associated with significant mood enhancement across all personality types, (b) extroversion would be associated with positive mood and neuroticism with negative mood both pre- and post-exercise, and (c) personality measures would interact with exercise-induced mood changes. Participants were 90 female exercisers (M = 25.8 yr, SD = 9.0 yr) who completed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI) once and the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) before and after a 60-minute exercise session. Median splits were used to group participants into four personality types: stable introverts (n = 25), stable extroverts (n = 20), neurotic introverts (n = 26), and neurotic extroverts (n = 19). Repeated measures MANOVA showed significant mood enhancement following exercise across all personality types. Neuroticism was associated with negative mood scores pre- and post-exercise but the effect of extroversion on reported mood was relatively weak. There was no significant interaction effect between exercise-induced mood enhancement and personality. In conclusion, findings lend support to the notion that exercise is associated with improved mood. However, findings show that personality did not influence this effect, although neuroticism was associated with negative mood

Most academics agree that emotions and moods are related but distinct phenomena. The present study assessed emotion-mood distinctions among a non-academic population and compared these views with distinctions proposed in the literature. Content analysis of responses from 106 participants identified 16 themes, with cause (65% of respondents), duration (40%), control (25%), experience (15%), and consequences (14%) the most frequently cited distinctions. Among 65 contributions to the academic literature, eight themes were proposed, with duration (62% of authors), intentionality (41%), cause (31%), consequences (31%), and function (18%) the most frequently cited. When the eight themes cited by both academics and non-academics were rank ordered, approximately 60% overlap in opinion was evident. A data-derived summary of emotion-mood distinctions is provided. These data should prove useful to investigators interested in developing a clearer scientific distinction between emotion and mood than is currently available.

Objectives: To establish injury rates among a population of elite athletes, to provide normative data for psychological variables hypothesised to be predictive of sport injuries, and to establish relations between measures of mood, perceived life stress, and injury characteristics as a precursor to introducing a psychological intervention to ameliorate the injury problem. Methods: As part of annual screening procedures, athletes at the Queensland Academy of Sport report medical and psychological status. Data from 845 screenings (433 female and 412 male athletes) were reviewed. Population specific tables of normative data were established for the Brunel mood scale and the perceived stress scale. Results: About 67% of athletes were injured each year, and about 18% were injured at the time of screening. Fifty percent of variance in stress scores could be predicted from mood scores, especially for vigour, depression, and tension. Mood and stress scores collectively had significant utility in predicting injury characteristics. Injury status (current, healed, no injury) was correctly classified with 39% accuracy, and back pain with 48% accuracy. Among a subset of 233 uninjured athletes (116 female and 117 male), five mood dimensions (anger, confusion, fatigue, tension, depression) were significantly related to orthopaedic incidents over the preceding 12 months, with each mood dimension explaining 6-7% of the variance. No sex differences in these relations were found. Conclusions: The findings support suggestions that psychological measures have utility in predicting athletic injury, although the relatively modest explained variance highlights the need to also include underlying physiological indicators of allostatic load, such as stress hormones, in predictive models.

To date, there has been limited research into mood responses among adolescents with intellectual disability. One reason for this is the absence of a reliable and valid measure for the assessment of mood among this population. The present study evaluated such a measure among a sample of 135 adolescents with mild intellectual disability. Results supported the factorial validity of a 12-item derivative of the Profile of Mood States, referred to as the Intellectual Disability Mood Scale (IDMS). Convergent and divergent validity was also supported. Overall, the IDMS showed encouraging psychometric characteristics as a measure of mood among adolescents with intellectual disability. It is hoped that the results of this study will stimulate further research to expand our knowledge of mood responses among this population.