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Background Free-range local chickens (FRLC) farming is an important activity in Tanzania, however, they have not been well-characterized. This study aimed to phenotypically characterize three Tanzanian FRLCs and to determine their population structure. A total of 389 mature breeder chickens (324 females and 65 males) from three popular Tanzanian FRLC ecotypes (Kuchi, Morogoro-medium and Ching’wekwe) were used for the phenotypic characterization. Progenies of these chickens were utilized to assess population structure. The ecotypes were collected from four geographical zones across Tanzania: Lake, Central, Northern and Coastal zones. Body weights and linear measurements were obtained from the mature breeders, including body, neck, shanks, wingspan, chest girth, and shank girth. Descriptive statistics were utilized to characterize the chickens. Correlations between the linear measurements and differences among the means of measured linear traits between ecotypes and between sexes were assessed. A total of 1399 progeny chicks were genotyped using a chicken 600 K high density single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) panel for determination of population structure. Results The means for most traits were significantly higher in Kuchi relative to Ching’wekwe and Morogoro-medium. However, shank length and shank girth were similar between Kuchi and Morogoro-medium females. All traits were correlated with the exception of shank girth in Morogoro-medium. Admixture analyses revealed that Morogoro-medium and Ching’wekwe clustered together as one population, separate from Kuchi. Conclusions Phenotypic traits could be used to characterize FRLCs, however, there were variations in traits among individuals within ecotypes; therefore, complementary genomic methods should be considered to improve the characterization for selective breeding.

The rise in the spread of antibiotic-resistant pathogens such as Escherichia coli is one of the very important dynamics off-putting treatment and prophylaxis possibilities, hence posing a threat to the modern human medicine, veterinary medicine, and food safety. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine antimicrobial resistance profiles in E. coli isolates obtained from broiler and layer chickens in Mwanza and Arusha regions in Tanzania. A cross-sectional study was carried out from February to March, 2021, in 402 poultry farms in Mwanza (201) and Arusha (201) regions in Tanzania. All samples that tested positive for E. coli were confirmed using MALDI-TOF MS, and two hundred and four (204) E. coli isolates were randomly chosen and subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing by disc diffusion method. Data were entered in Microsoft Excel® and analyzed using SPSS version 20. Isolates were tested against seven antimicrobial agents belonging to seven classes of antimicrobials. All the tested isolates (n = 204) were resistant to at least one antimicrobial agent. Overall, the highest resistance was observed in ampicillin (100%), whereas the lowest resistance was recorded for gentamicin (10.3%). Majority of the isolates (86.76%) were multidrug resistant. Antimicrobial resistance of E. coli to four classes of antimicrobial agents was the highest in this study (31.1%). Six of the 177 tested isolates (2.9%) were resistant to the seven classes of antimicrobial agents. 21 of the 204 (10.29%) isolates were ESBL producers where 21/21 (100%) isolates expressed blaTEM genes and only two isolates expressed (2/21) blaCTX-M gene. The isolates obtained in this study displayed high resistance to commonly used antimicrobial agents in veterinary and human medicine. This implies that there is existence of practices that accelerate antimicrobial resistance in the production of the sampled birds and therefore integration of appropriate use of antimicrobial agents and other measures that curb the spread of resistant genes is necessary.

A Newcastle disease virus was isolated from a chicken from a live bird market in the Mbeya region of Tanzania. Complete genome characterization of the isolate identified it as a member of subgenotype Vd. This is the first complete genome sequence of this subgenotype.

Newcastle Disease (ND) is a continuing global threat to domestic poultry, especially in developing countries, where severe outbreaks of velogenic ND virus (NDV) often cause major economic losses to households. Local chickens are of great importance to rural family livelihoods through provision of high-quality protein. To investigate the genetic basis of host response to NDV, three popular Tanzanian chicken ecotypes (regional populations) were challenged with a lentogenic (vaccine) strain of NDV at 28 days of age. Various host response phenotypes, including anti-NDV antibody levels (pre-infection and 10 days post-infection, dpi), and viral load (2 and 6 dpi) were measured, in addition to growth rate. We estimated genetic parameters and conducted genome-wide association study analyses by genotyping 1399 chickens using the Affymetrix 600K chicken SNP chip. Estimates of heritability of the evaluated traits were moderate (0.18&ndash, 0.35). Five quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with growth and/or response to NDV were identified by single-SNP analyses, with some regions explaining &ge, 1% of genetic variance based on the Bayes-B method. Immune related genes, such as ETS1, TIRAP, and KIRREL3, were located in regions associated with viral load at 6 dpi. The moderate estimates of heritability and identified QTL indicate that NDV response traits may be improved through selective breeding of chickens to enhance increased NDV resistance and vaccine efficacy in Tanzanian local ecotypes.

Chickens in live bird markets (LBMs) from six different regions of Tanzania were surveyed for Newcastle disease (ND) virus (NDV) and avian influenza virus in 2012. ELISA-based serology, virus isolation, and characterization, including pathotyping was conducted. Virulent NDV was isolated from almost 10% of the tested samples, with two distinct genotypes being detected. One genotype was similar to recent viruses circulating in Kenya and Uganda, which share a northern border with Tanzania. Several viruses of this genotype were also isolated from Tanzania in 1995, the last time surveillance for NDV was conducted in the country. The second genotype of virus from Tanzania was closely related to viruses from Mozambique, a southern neighbor, and more distantly to viruses from South Africa, Botswana, and several European countries. Partial fusion gene sequence from the isolated viruses showed identical fusion cleavage sites that were compatible with virulent viruses. Selected viruses were tested by the intracerebral pathogenicity index, and all viruses tested had scores of1.78, indicating highly virulent viruses. Serology showed only a third of the chickens had detectable antibody to NDV, suggesting that vaccination is not being commonly used in the country, despite the availability of vaccines in agricultural-related markets. All samples were taken from clinically healthy birds, and it is believed that the birds were sold or slaughtered before showing ND clinical signs. LBMs remain a biosecurity risk for farmers through the return of live infected birds to the farm or village or the movement of virus on fomites, such as uncleaned wooden cages.Aislamiento y caracterización de virus de la enfermedad de Newcastle de mercados de aves vivas en Tanzania. Se llevó a cabo un muestreo de pollos en mercados de aves vivas (LBM) de seis regiones diferentes de Tanzania para detectar al virus de la enfermedad de Newcastle (NDV) y el virus de la influenza aviar en el año 2012. Se llevaron a cabo la serología basada en la prueba de ELISA, el aislamiento viral y la caracterización, incluyendo la determinación del patotipo. Formas virulentas del virus de Newcastle se aislaron de casi el 10% de las muestras analizadas y se detectaron dos genotipos distintos. Un genotipo era similar a los virus recientes que circulan en Kenia y Uganda, países que comparten una frontera al norte de Tanzania. Varios virus de este genotipo también se aislaron de Tanzania en el año 1995, la última vez que se realizó la vigilancia del virus de Newcastle en el país. El segundo genotipo de virus de Tanzania estaba estrechamente relacionado con virus de Mozambique, país vecino al sur, y más distantemente con virus de Sudáfrica, Botswana y de varios países europeos. Una secuencia parcial del gene de fusión de los virus aislados mostró sitios de disociación en la proteína de fusión idénticos que eran compatibles con los virus virulentos. Los virus seleccionados fueron analizados mediante el índice de patogenicidad intracerebral y todos los virus analizados tuvieron puntajes mayores de 1.78, lo que indica que son virus altamente virulentos. La serología mostró que solo un tercio de los pollos tenían anticuerpos detectables contra el virus de Newcastle, lo que sugiere que la vacunación no se usa comúnmente en el país, a pesar de la disponibilidad de vacunas en los mercados agrícolas. Todas las muestras fueron recolectadas de aves clínicamente sanas y se cree que las aves fueron vendidas o sacrificadas antes de mostrar signos clínicos de la enfermedad de Newcastle. Los mercados de aves vivas siguen siendo un riesgo de bioseguridad para los agricultores mediante el regreso de aves vivas infectadas a la granja o a los pueblos o por el movimiento de virus en fómites, como las jaulas de madera sin limpiar.

Household surveys are an important tool for assessing the status or trends of rural households, farms, and communities, and for conducting research. Conducting surveys in rural communities in developing countries is expensive and logistically challenging. We investigated whether primary school children could efficiently collect household or farm data as part of their homework. We hypothesised that primary school students can collect accurate data and therefore it should not be different from the data collected by trained interviewers. The results indicate that primary schools may be an excellent resource for efficiently collecting information about rural households and farm families in developing countries.

The aim of this study was to investigate the maternal genealogical pattern of chicken breeds sampled in Europe. Sequence polymorphisms of 1256 chickens of the hypervariable region (D-loop) of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) were used. Median-joining networks were constructed to establish evolutionary relationships among mtDNA haplotypes of chickens, which included a wide range of breeds with different origin and history. Chicken breeds which have had their roots in Europe for more than 3000 years were categorized by their founding regions, encompassing Mediterranean type, East European type and Northwest European type. Breeds which were introduced to Europe from Asia since the mid-19th century were classified as Asian type, and breeds based on crossbreeding between Asian breeds and European breeds were classified as Intermediate type. The last group, Game birds, included fighting birds from Asia. The classification of mtDNA haplotypes was based on Liu et al.'s (2006) nomenclature. Haplogroup E was the predominant clade among the European chicken breeds. The results showed, on average, the highest number of haplotypes, highest haplotype diversity, and highest nucleotide diversity for Asian type breeds, followed by Intermediate type chickens. East European and Northwest European breeds had lower haplotype and nucleotide diversity compared to Mediterranean, Intermediate, Game and Asian type breeds. Results of our study support earlier findings that chicken breeds sampled in Europe have their roots in the Indian subcontinent and East Asia. This is consistent with historical and archaeological evidence of chicken migration routes to Europe.

The genus Campylobacter comprises members known to be a leading cause of foodborne gastrointestinal illness worldwide. A study was conducted to determine the epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter in humans in Morogoro, Eastern Tanzania. Isolation of Campylobacter from stool specimens adopted the Cape Town protocol. Campylobacter isolates were preliminarily identified by conventional phenotypic tests and subsequently confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry and polymerase chain reaction. Antimicrobial resistance testing employed the disc diffusion method. A small proportion of the test isolates was also subjected to agar dilution method. Risk factors for human illness were determined in an unmatched case-control study. Thermophilic Campylobacter were isolated from 11.4% of the screened individuals (n = 1195). The agreement between PCR and MALDI-TOF was perfect (κ = 1.0). Symptomatics and young individuals were infected with higher numbers than asymptomatic and adults, respectively. The majority (84.6%) of the isolates were C. jejuni and the remaining were C. coli. Isolates had highest resistance (95.6%) for colistin sulphate and lowest for ciprofloxacin (22.1%). The rates of resistance for other antibiotics (azithromycin, erythromycin, tetracycline, cephalothin, gentamycin, nalidixic acid, ampicillin, amoxycillin, norfloxacin, chloramphenicol) ranged from 44.1% to 89%. Comparison between disc diffusion and agar dilution methods indicated a good correlation, and the tests were in agreement to each other (κ ≥ 0.75). Human illness was found to be associated with young age and consumption of chicken meat and pre-prepared salad. Our data indicate the presence of antibiotic-resistant thermophilic Campylobacter in humans in the study area. There is a need for routine investigation of the presence of the organisms in gastroenteritis aetiology, including determination of their antibiotic susceptibilities.

Urban and peri-urban livestock farming is expanding world-widely because of increased urbanization and demands for food of animal origin. Such farming practices pose a public health risk as livestock are reservoirs of several zoonotic pathogens. In an attempt to determine the fecal transmission between livestock and people, 100 household clusters keeping cattle in close proximity of humans were selected in urban and peri-urban areas of Morogoro in Tanzania. One hundred eighteen ampicillin and tetracycline resistant Escherichia coli (40 from human stool, 50 from cattle feces, 21 from soil and seven from water samples) were isolated from 44 different clusters. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) of XbaI digested chromosomal DNA was used to compare the genetic relatedness of the ampicillin- and tetracycline-resistant E . coli isolates. Indistinguishable PFGE band patterns of the ampicillin- and tetracycline-resistant E. coli isolates were found in samples from 23 (52%) clusters. This suggests that transfer of fecal microorganisms between cattle, humans, water and soils within the farms and from livestock farms to the neighborhood occurred commonly. Logistic regression showed that animal housing infrastructures (Odd Ratio = 11.2, 95% CI = 1.1–119.3) were associated with E . coli showing identical PFGE types within and between clusters. There is a need to improve animal husbandry and manure management practices to reduce risks of transmission of enteropathogens between livestock and humans in urban and peri-urban farming.

Aim: To determine the carriage and antimicrobial resistance of Thermophilic Campylobacter species in the gastrointestinal tracts of farm and laboratory animals in Morogoro, Tanzania Materials and Methods: Faecal samples were collected from farm (n=244) and laboratory (n=466) animals and were subjected to the Cape Town protocol for isolation of Campylobacter. Isolates were preliminarily identified based on potassium hydroxide string and hippurate hydrolysis tests. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was employed for confirmation of isolates. Antimicrobial resistance testing was done using disc diffusion method. Results: Of the laboratory animals 26.7% of guinea pigs (n=30) and 1.2% of rats (n=242) were colonized with Campylobacter. Four isolates from guinea pigs were Campylobacter jejuni and the other four were C. coli. From rats, two isolates were C. jejuni and one was C. coli. In farm animals thermophilic Campylobacter were detected from 31.6% of sheep (n=57) and 60% horses (n=5). Of the isolates 12 (57%) were C. jejuni (10 from sheep and 2 from horses) and the remaining were C. coli (8 from sheep and 1 from a horse). The isolates were frequently resistant to erythromycin, norfloxacin, colistin sulphate and nalidixic acid; whereas low levels of resistance were observed for ciprofloxacin and gentamicin. Conclusion: Our study reveals carriage of antimicrobial resistant thermophilic Campylobacter in the intestines of the study animals. This highlights possibilities in involvement of these animals in the epidemiology of Campylobacter infections. Thus, there is a need to consider these animal species when planning control measures for this zoonotic bacterium.

The perception of risks of exposure to avian influenza and other poultry diseases among adults in Tanzania is influenced by their previous experiences, beliefs, and values, which can stand in the way of learning new approaches. We tested a novel disease risk communication approach centered on elementary school pupils, involving their teachers and parents. Age-appropriate training modules were developed and taught to teachers who then taught their pupils through extracurricular activities. The pupils practiced what they learned through club projects and subsequently transmitted what they learned to their parents. In 2009 we developed a poultry health and production curriculum as part of efforts to prevent and control poultry diseases, including avian influenza, in Tanzania. The curriculum developed for veterinarians and veterinary paraprofessionals was adapted for use with elementary school children and translated into Kiswahili. Twenty teachers from 10 primary schools in Mzumbe ward, Morogoro, were trained by poultry veterinary extension experts on teaching the curriculum to standard 5 pupils (ages 11-12 yr). Pupils and teachers practiced the curriculum in four demonstration chicken coops established on the grounds of the Changarawe, Lubungo, Masanze, and Mzumbe primary schools. By October 2011, at the conclusion of the funded project, a total of 202 girls and 193 boys had been trained. Additionally, 34 adults from surrounding villages made official learning tours to the schools and received training from their children and teachers involved in the projects. With at least 75% of the 395 pupils coming from different households, it can be safely assumed that over 250 households have heard about poultry disease risks and how to manage poultry to prevent those risks.

Wildlife species exposed to habitat fragmentation are often in need of a conservation effort. The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) is one of the key species in the Serengeti ecosystem as they form a large part of the herbivore biomass, providing ecotourism and valuable trophies. The ecosystem is a part of Tanzanias protected areas and is administrated under different management practices. Among these, we have analysed the genetic structure of buffalo (n = 68) from the Serengeti National Park (SNP), the Ngorongoro conservation area (NCA) and the Maswa game reserve (MGR). Both the sequence variation in a 493 base pair fragment of the mitochondrial D-loop and the allele frequency-distribution in 15 microsatellites suggest genetic structuring of the buffalo populations within the ecosystem. Both the allele frequency-distribution and the amount of genetic variation were high and similar in SNP and MGR, suggesting a high degree of gene flow between these locations. By comparison, the NCA buffaloes had significantly lower genetic variation and were genetically differentiated from SNP and MGR. Approximate Bayesian computation estimates suggest that the observed genetic structure is of a recent origin, indicating that the recent increases in developmental activity in the region may have influenced the genetic structure of the buffalo within the Serengeti ecosystem.

A study was conducted to evaluate the disease resistance potential in 105 chickens of six indigenous local chicken ecotypes in Tanzania by orally challenging 1-week-old chicks with 2.5 x 10(8) colony-forming units of virulent S. Gallinarum. For 14 days post infection, clinical signs, necropsy findings, antibody titres, packed cell volume, leukocyte population count, and viable bacterial cell counts in the liver and spleen were recorded. Clinical signs were recorded daily but other parameters were recorded on the day of infection, then on days 3, 6, 10 and 14 after infection. Clinical signs of fowl typhoid were evident in chickens from day 3 post infection and disappeared by day 9 post infection. Pathological lesions on sacrificed birds included enlargement of the liver and spleen with foci of necrosis on the liver, spleen and myocardium. The mean viable bacterial cell counts in the liver and spleen varied between ecotypes, although the differences were not statistically significant. There were significant differences in the leukocyte population in the peripheral blood, with one ecotype (Morogoro-medium) showing a consistent and significantly higher heterophil count compared with other ecotypes. It was concluded that there is a selectable resistance potential to S. Gallinarum among the local chicken ecotypes in Tanzania that may be attributable to non-specific host immune responses. Further studies are suggested.

The pathogenicity of a virulent strain of Salmonella gallinarum was studied in local chickens and commercial layers. Sixty 4-month-old chickens were used. Of these, 50 chickens were orally infected with S. gallinarum, comprising 25 commercial layers and 25 local chickens. Five chickens in each group were used as uninfected negative controls. The clinical signs and pathological features of acute, subacute and chronic fowl typhoid were observed in both groups. Chickens in both groups seroconverted, but the antibody titre was significantly higher (p

Genetic diversity and population structure of 113 chicken populations from Africa, Asia and Europe were studied using 29 microsatellite markers. Among these, three populations of wild chickens and nine commercial purebreds were used as reference populations for comparison. Compared to commercial lines and chickens sampled from the European region, high mean numbers of alleles and a high degree of heterozygosity were found in Asian and African chickens as well as in Red Junglefowl. Population differentiation (FST ) was higher among European breeds and commercial lines than among African, Asian and Red Junglefowl populations. Neighbour-Net genetic clustering and structure analysis revealed two main groups of Asian and north-west European breeds, whereas African populations overlap with other breeds from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean region. Broilers and brown egg layers were situated between the Asian and north-west European clusters. structure analysis confirmed a lower degree of population stratification in African and Asian chickens than in European breeds. High genetic differentiation and low genetic contributions to global diversity have been observed for single European breeds. Populations with low genetic variability have also shown a low genetic contribution to a core set of diversity in attaining maximum genetic variation present from the total populations. This may indicate that conservation measures in Europe should pay special attention to preserving as many single chicken breeds as possible to maintain maximum genetic diversity given that higher genetic variations come from differentiation between breeds.

Escherichia coli strains such as Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), enteropathogenic E. coli, enterotoxigenic, attaching, and effacing E. coli, and enteroinvasive E. coli cause diarrhea in humans. Although other serotypes exist, the most commonly reported STEC in outbreaks is O157:H7. A cross-sectional study was conducted to isolate and characterize non-sorbitol-fermenting (NSF) E. coli O157:H7 from urban and periurban livestock settings of Morogoro, Tanzania. Human stool, cattle feces, and soil and water samples were collected. Observations and questionnaire interview studies were used to gather information about cattle and manure management practices in the study area. E. coli were isolated on sorbitol MacConkey agar and characterized by conventional biochemical tests. Out of 1049 samples, 143 (13.7%) yielded NSF E. coli. Serological and antimicrobial tests and molecular typing were performed to NSF E. coli isolates. These procedures detected 10 (7%) pathogenic E. coli including STEC (n=7), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) (n=2), and attaching and effacing E. coli (A/EEC) (n=1) strains. The STEC strains had the ability to produce VT1 and different VT2 toxin subtypes that caused cytopathic effects on Vero cells. The prevalence of STEC in cattle was 1.6%, out of which 0.9% was serotype O157:H7 and the overall prevalence of diarrheagenic E. coli in cattle was 2.2%. The serotypes O157:H7, O142:H34, O113:H21, O+:H-, O+:H16, and O25:H4 were identified. One ESBL-producing isolate showed the MLST type ST131. To our knowledge, this is the first finding in Tanzania of this recently emerged worldwide pandemic clonal group, causing widespread antimicrobial-resistant infections, and adds knowledge of the geographical distribution of ST131. Cattle manure was indiscriminately deposited within residential areas, and there was direct contact between humans and cattle feces during manure handling. Cattle and manure management practices expose humans, animals, and the environment to pathogenic E. coli and other manure-borne pathogens. Therefore, there is a need to improve manure management practices in urban and periurban areas to prevent pathogen spread and associated human health risks.

The study aimed to evaluate the genetic diversity of Tanzanian chicken populations through phylogenetic relationship, and to trace the history of Tanzanian indigenous chickens. Five ecotypes of Tanzanian local chickens (Ching’wekwe, Kuchi, Morogoro-medium, Pemba and Unguja) from eight regions were studied. Diversity was assessed based on morphological measurements and 29 microsatellite markers recommended by ISAG/FAO advisory group on animal genetic diversity. A principal component analysis (PCA) of morphological measures distinguished individuals most by body sizes and body weight. Morogoro Medium, Pemba and Unguja were grouped together, while Ching'wekwe stood out because of their disproportionate short shanks and ulna bones . Kuchi formed an independent group owing to their comparably long body sizes. Microsatellite analysis revealed three clusters of Tanzanian chicken populations. These clusters encompassed i) Morogoro-medium and Ching’wekwe from Eastern and Central Zones ii) Unguja and Pemba from Zanzibar Islands and iii) Kuchi from Lake Zone regions, which formed an independent cluster. Sequence polymorphism of D-loop region was analysed to disclose the likely maternal origin of Tanzanian chickens. According to reference mtDNA haplotypes, the Tanzanian chickens that were sampled encompass two haplogroups of different genealogical origin. From haplotype network analysis, Tanzanian chickens probably originated on the Indian subcontinent and in Southeast Asia. The majority of Kuchi chickens clustered in a single haplogroup, which was previously found in Shamo game birds sampled from Shikoku Island of Japan in the Kōchi Prefecture. Analysis of phenotypic and molecular data, as well as the linguistic similarity of the breed names, suggests a recent introduction of the Kuchi breed to Tanzania. Keywords: Tanzanian indigenous chickens, genetic diversity, microsatellites, mitochondrial DNA

A study was conducted to determine the variations in physical characters and immunocompetence among scavenging local chicken ecotypes in Tanzania. Eighty-four adult scavenging local chickens from four eco-climatic regions of Tanzania were studied. Measurements of adult body weight, body length, shank length and egg weight and observations of plumage colour and pattern, earlobe colour, skin colour and the shape of the comb were conducted. The antibody response to sheep red blood cells, serum haemolytic complement and the cutaneous response to phytohaemagglutinin-P were assessed. Five ecotypes were identified and named Mbeya, Morogoro-medium, Ching'wekwe, Kuchi and Singamagazi. Singamagazi and Kuchi were significantly heavier, with longer shanks and heavier eggs than the other ecotypes. The average adult body weight for males ranged from 1621 g (Mbeya) to 2915 g (Singamagazi). Average female weights ranged from 1108 g (Morogoro-medium) to 2020 g (Singamagazi). Mean egg weights ranged from 37.65 g (Ching'wekwe) to 45.61 (Singamagazi). The Kuchi had mostly rose and walnut combs, while the other ecotypes were mostly single combed. In each ecotype there were chickens with a high or low antibody response to red blood cells, but there was a significant difference between the ecotypes.

Microsatellite loci were isolated from a dinucleotide-enriched library made from the African blue wildebeest, Connochaetes taurinus. Seventeen polymorphic microsatellites were characterized among 24 individuals sampled from Tanzania. The number of alleles ranged from 4 to 12 and the observed heterozygosity between 0.45 and 1.00. These microsatellite loci should prove useful in the study of population structure of the blue wildebeest.

The implementation of strategies to detect, prevent, and control highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in developing countries presents several challenges, one of which is the presence of other diseases in poultry populations. Training workshops in developing countries using the Avian Flu School have revealed that in areas with heavy Newcastle disease burdens, smallholder poultry keepers do not recognize HPAI as an immediate threat. We have developed a strategy to address the more proximal needs and priorities of communities with free-ranging poultry flocks as a means to create value in poultry, and thus to improve disease detection and prevention overall. To this end, we have created the Poultry Health and Well-Being for Development project, which trains graduate veterinarians and paraprofessionals in poultry disease diagnosis, control, and treatment. These trainees then serve their local communities to improve poultry health and to implement disease detection and management programs.

A study was carried out to confirm and identify sources and elucidate factors associated with the introduction of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) in southern Tanzania. This study was conducted in Tandahimba and Newala districts of Mtwara region following suspected outbreak of PPR in the area. Qualitative data were collected using semi-structured questionnaires and in-depth interviews of key informants who included goat and sheep owners with suspected cases of PPR and animal health service providers as well as local administrative authority. Additionally, 216 serum samples and 28 swabs were collected for serological and virological laboratory disease confirmation. The results show that PPR was first introduced in Likuna village of Newala district in February 2009 through newly purchased goats from the Pugu livestock market located about 700 km in the outskirts of Dar es Salaam city. Factors which contributed to spread of PPR included communal grazing and the cheap prices of sick animals bought by livestock keepers for slaughtering in other villages. Laboratory findings confirmed presence of PPR in the area by RT-PCR and serological analysis revealed that seroprevalence was 31%. These findings have confirmed, for the first time, introduction of PPR in southern Tanzania. The presence of PPR poses high risk of southward spread of the disease to other southern African countries in the SADC region thus calling for concerted and collaborative efforts in prevention and control of the disease to avoid losses. Further elaborate studies on the spread, prevalence and risk factors associated with the disease should urgently be investigated.

Background Small-scale poultry production has the potential to increase animal-source food consumption, improve household income, and reduce food insecurity. Objective To assess the impact of a chicken Newcastle disease vaccination program on consumption of chicken and eggs among women and children, income, and food insecurity in rural Tanzanian households. Methods Comparisons were made between house-holds from three project villages, which participated in a Newcastle disease vaccination program for chickens, and three control villages, which did not participate. Household interviews were done with mothers from a random sample in March 2008 (237 households) and March 2009 (261 households). Results After the first year of vaccinations (three rounds), project households kept significantly more chickens and tended to be more food secure than control households. Mothers from project households ate significantly more eggs than their counterparts in control households. A similar trend was observed among children. In 2009, fewer chickens were vaccinated in the project villages than in 2008, and more chickens were independently vaccinated in the control villages. This corresponded with an increase in ownership of chickens, a reduction in food insecurity, and improved consumption of eggs in control villages, whereas chicken ownership and egg consumption decreased and food insecurity remained relatively stable in project villages. We saw no differences between project and control villages in income earned from chicken and egg sales. Conclusions Our findings suggest that an increase in chicken Newcastle disease vaccination can lead to an increase in ownership of chickens and egg consumption and may also have an effect on reducing household food insecurity.

In- vitro studies on the efficacy of crude extracts of Aloe secundiflora on Candida albicans was conducted. Five mature leaves of Aloe secundiflora were collected and the crude extract was prepared, then autoclaved. The extract was then tested on Candida albicans grown on solid media. The results from these studies revealed complete inhibition of Candida albicans growth caused by Aloe secundiflora crude extract on solid media. The findings from this study suggest that the crude extract of Aloe secundiflora can inhibit the growth of Candida albicans. Further studies are required to establish the in-vivo activity of the crude extract, the active ingredient, dosage and safety of Aloe secundiflora, before recommending for clinical use.

In-vitro studies on the efficacy of crude extracts of Aloe secundiflora on Candida albicans was conducted. Five mature leaves of Aloe secundiflora were collected and the crude extract was prepared, then autoclaved. The extract was then tested on Candida albicans grown on solid media. The results from these studies revealed complete inhibition of Candida albicans growth caused by Aloe secundiflora crude extract on solid media. The findings from this study suggest that the crude extract of Aloe secundiflora can inhibit the growth of Candida albicans. Further studies are required to establish the in-vivo activity of the crude extract, the active ingredient, dosage and safety of Aloe secundiflora, before recommending for clinical use.

Free-ranging local chicken flocks are important for the livelihood of resource-poor rural farmers in Tanzania, as they provide a critical source of animal protein and a ready source of income through the sale of chickens and eggs. An occurrence of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) in the village setting of Tanzania would result in a disastrous loss of livelihood. This paper attempts to offer an alternative method for preventing and controlling HPAI in village settings of Tanzania through community-based approaches.

A social strategy was tested for implementing Newcastle disease (ND) vaccination and biosecurity improvements among free-ranging chicken at village level in Tanzania. In addition to training the local poultry vaccinators, data recorders and poultry-keepers, the strategy involved training and empowering leaders at the district, ward and village level. The trainings covered poultry health, management, and marketing of village chickens, with an emphasis on ND vaccination and improving biosecurity against avian influenza (AI), The study sites included villages in one ward in each of three each three districts (Iringa, Mtwara-Mikindani, and Mvomero) of mainland Tanzania. Ninety-six local leaders at district level and 101 leaders at ward levels were trained. In addition, 196 farmers (households) were trained, as well as 86 vaccinators and 26 data recorders. Data recorders were also trained as poultry first aid workers. ND vaccination was conducted by the vaccinators, supervised by their local leaders with technical assistance from veterinarians. A total of 158,343 village chickens were vaccinated in three rounds of vaccination three months apart. The training and empowerment of local leaders and local implementers was the key element for success as it fostered the feeling of local ownership of the program and prevented conflicts with other development activities within the villages. We conclude that most animal health programs will increase their odds of success by involving local leaders and by addressing the current challenges facing the farmers. Further assessment on the usefulness of this approach is needed.