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Graculus neglectus Wahlberg, 1855: 214. VERBATIM TYPE LOCALITY: “ Ad insulas orae occidentalis Africae meridionalis, ut Possession, Halifax, Ichaboe & c. sat frequens. ” CURRENT STATUS: Phalacrocorax neglectus (Wahlberg, 1855/1856?); Phalacrocoracidae (Dickinson & Remsen 2013: 197). TYPE MATERIAL: From Wahlberg’s original description (1855: 214) it is obvious that he had several specimens (“ sat frequens ”) of both sexes and at different ages for study. AccordingtoSundevall’sacquisitioncatalogueseven specimenswerereceivedin1857 from South Africa after Wahlberg’s death. Gyldenstolpe (1926: 96) referred to NRM 569893 [11817] as “type”, here treated as a lectotype designation of this male collected 11 April 1854 on Ichaboe Island. The six paralectotypes are: NRM 90101844 [11815], a male collected 11 April 1854 on Ichaboe Island; NRM 536788 [11818], a mount of a juvenile male collected 11 April 1854 on Ichaboe Island; NRM 90101846 [11819], a juvenile female collected 4 Apr 1854 on Penguin Island; NRM 90200198 [11820], a juvenile female collected 4 Apr 1854 on Penguin Island; NRM 554496 [11821], a pullus collected 11 Apr 1854 on Ichaboe Island; and UMB 9678 [11816], a male, data unknown, sent on exchange to Bremen in 1858. VERIFIED TYPE LOCALITY: Ichaboe Island, Namibia. COMMENTS: Locality and date appear to be correct., Published as part of Dean, W. Richard J., Åhlander, Erik & Johansson, Ulf S., 2022, Avian type localities and the type specimens collected by Johan August Wahlberg in southern Africa, pp. 521-560 in Zootaxa 5134 (4) on pages 527-528, DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5134.4.3, http://zenodo.org/record/6541737, {"references":["Dickinson, E. C. & Remsen, J. V. (2013) The Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. 4 th Edition. Vol. 1. Non-passerines. Aves Press, Eastbourne, 461 pp.","Gyldenstolpe, N. (1926) Types of birds in the Royal Natural History Museum in Stockholm. Arkiv f or Zoologi, 19, 1 - 116."]}

The Bank Cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus is endemic to the Benguela upwelling ecosystem off southwest Africa and is classified as Endangered owing to a recent large reduction in its number. It is...

The frequency of extreme weather events, including heat waves, is increasing with climate change. The thermoregulatory demands resulting from hotter weather can have catastrophic impacts on animals, leading to mass mortalities. Although less dramatic, animals also experience physiological costs below, but approaching, critical temperature thresholds. These costs may be particularly constraining during reproduction, when parents must balance thermoregulation against breeding activities. Such challenges should be acute among seabirds, which often nest in locations exposed to high solar radiation and predation risk. The globally endangered bank cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus breeds in southern Africa in the winter, giving little scope for poleward or phenological shifts in the face of increasing temperatures. Physiological studies of endangered species sensitive to human disturbance, like the bank cormorant, are challenging, because individuals cannot be captured for experimental research. Using a novel, non-invasive, videographic approach, we investigated the thermoregulatory responses of this seabird across a range of environmental temperatures at three nesting colonies. The time birds spent gular fluttering, a behaviour enhancing evaporative heat loss, increased with temperature. Crouching or standing birds spent considerably less time gular fluttering than birds sitting on nests (ca 30% less at 22°C), showing that postural adjustments mediate exposure to heat stress and enhance water conservation. Crouching or standing, however, increases the vulnerability of eggs and chicks to suboptimal temperatures and/or expose nest contents to predation, suggesting that parents may trade-off thermoregulatory demands against offspring survival. We modelled thermoregulatory responses under future climate scenarios and found that nest-bound bank cormorants will gular flutter almost continuously for several hours a day by 2100. The associated increase in water loss may lead to dehydration, forcing birds to prioritize survival over breeding, a trade-off that would ultimately deteriorate the conservation status of this species.

Human activities are important drivers of marine ecosystem functioning. However, separating the synergistic effects of fishing and environmental variability on the prey base of nontarget predators is difficult, often because prey availability estimates on appropriate scales are lacking. Understanding how prey abundance at different spatial scales links to population change can help integrate the needs of nontarget predators into fisheries management by defining ecologically relevant areas for spatial protection. We investigated the local population response (number of breeders) of the Bank Cormorant (Phalacrocorax neglectus), a range-restricted endangered seabird, to the availability of its prey, the heavily fished west coast rock lobster (Jasus lalandii). Using Bayesian state-space modeled cormorant counts at 3 colonies, 22 years of fisheries-independent data on local lobster abundance, and generalized additive modeling, we determined the spatial scale pertinent to these relationships in areas with different lobster availability. Cormorant numbers responded positively to lobster availability in the regions with intermediate and high abundance but not where regime shifts and fishing pressure had depleted lobster stocks. The relationships were strongest when lobsters 20-30 km offshore of the colony were considered, a distance greater than the Bank Cormorant's foraging range when breeding, and may have been influenced by prey availability for nonbreeding birds, prey switching, or prey ecology. Our results highlight the importance of considering the scale of ecological relationships in marine spatial planning and suggest that designing spatial protection around focal species can benefit marine predators across their full life cycle. We propose the precautionary implementation of small-scale marine protected areas, followed by robust assessment and adaptive-management, to confirm population-level benefits for the cormorants, their prey, and the wider ecosystem, without negative impacts on local fisheries.

Marine Protected Areas are important tools for the conservation and management of marine ecosystems, including top predators. The Namibian Islands’ Marine Protected Area (NIMPA) primarily aims to improve the status of threatened seabird species breeding in Namibia and therefore needed to include all Namibian seabird breeding islands and key foraging areas. For the design of the NIMPA we used information on the foraging ecology of globally endangered African penguins Spheniscus demersus and locally endangered Cape gannets Morus capensis obtained in 2005 and 2006 from three breeding islands in Namibia using data logger technology. Additional data logger studies (2008–2010) were conducted on African penguins and globally endangered bank cormorants Phalacrocorax neglectus following the NIMPA’s design phase to test the adequacy of its boundaries regarding foraging ranges. Foraging areas greatly overlapped with those identified previously and were located within the NIMPA. Foraging ranges of African penguins from Mercury (mean 21.5 ± 6.6 km) and Halifax Islands (mean 12.1 ± 7.0 km) as well as of bank cormorants from Mercury Island (mean 3.2 ± 2.2 km) fell within the boundaries of the NIMPA. The mean foraging range for Cape gannets from Mercury Island (103.5 ± 35.4 km) was only partly included; core feeding activities took place within the NIMPA boundaries. These results demonstrate that despite the initial paucity of data, the NIMPA’s design was adequate in terms of encompassing key foraging areas of threatened seabirds and the use of preliminary data allowed the timely proclamation of the NIMPA while further studies were conducted to verify this.

The Bank Cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus is endemic to the Benguela Upwelling System of southern Africa. Most breeding colonies occur on offshore rocks, islands or man-made structures close to the high-water mark. Despite adaptations for breeding close to the water, nests can be lost to storms. Using data from two colonies where food is not considered limiting, we present a comparative study on nest survival in Bank Cormorants. Using a combination of the Mayfield method and parametric survival analysis, nest success was compared in nests on man-made structures at Robben Island, South Africa, where birds breed during the austral winter, with nests on man-made and natural structures at Mercury Island, Namibia, where Bank Cormorants breed during the austral summer. Overall, the probability of a nest surviving the breeding attempt was lower at Robben Island than at Mercury Island in all three seasons. Nest failures at Robben Island were related to wave heights and air temperature, with trends to suggest reduced chick survival in years where major storm events occurred during peak breeding. A heat wave appeared to cause major chick mortality at Mercury Island in 2005. Nest survival was relatively invariable between years at the main site monitored on Mercury Island, where nests were partially sheltered from the sun, but breeding productivity was poor in comparison to other cormorant species. Winter breeding in South Africa may increase the risk from storms but reduce the risk of heat exposure. An understanding of the impact of stochastic events on Bank Cormorants may be important in safe-guarding the continued survival of the species, particularly in light of the risks posed by future climate change.

We studied the foraging and diving behaviour of male bank cormorants Phalacrocorax neglectus at Mercury Island, Namibia, during the 2007-2008 breeding season. The island hosts the world's largest breeding colony of this endangered species. Population numbers are currently stable at Mercury Island, whereas numbers at other colonies in Namibia are decreasing, including those at formerly important colonies. This trend is presumably due to reduced food availability. At Mercury Island, bank cormorants foraged inshore (ca. 2 km off the coast) in close vicinity to their breeding site (ca. 3 km off the colony) and dived to an average depth of 30 m. Diet at Mercury Island was domi- nated by demersally occurring pelagic goby Sufflogobius bibarbatus. Our findings suggest that bank cormorants are benthic feeders along their entire range and that their foraging behaviour in Namibia does not differ from that suspected in South Africa. Further studies, extending to other breeding sites, are needed to explain the different population trends and how these may be influenced by food avail- ability. The identification of important foraging sites will play a crucial role in the management of Namibia's first Marine Protected Area and will contribute towards the protection of this species.

Seabird predation by great white pelicans Pelecanus onocrotalus is an unusual phenom- enon that has become increasingly frequent in the Western Cape, South Africa. We report the scale of pelican predation and its impact on the breeding success of 5 seabird species monitored at Dassen Island in 2006. Pelican predation was observed on chicks of kelp gulls Larus dominicanus, crowned cormorants Phalacrocorax coronatus and Cape cormorants Phalacrocorax capensis. No predation on eggs was seen. Breeding success for 4 of the 5 species studied was low, with the white-breasted cor- morants Phalacrocorax lucidus having the highest breeding success (0.56 fledglings per nest). Cape and bank cormorants Phalacrocorax neglectus did not fledge any chicks, while crowned cormorants had a breeding success of 0.08 fledglings per nest. Kelp gulls had a hatching success of 46%, but only a few chicks fledged, giving a breeding success of 0.06 fledglings per nest. Pelican predation poses a threat to at least 3 of the 5 seabirds studied, all of which are endemic to southern Africa. Three spe- cies are globally Endangered or Near Threatened, and pelican predation places additional pressure on these species. Management actions are needed to reduce or eliminate pelican predation.

In South Africa's Western Cape Province, numbers of bank cormorants Phalacrocorax neglectus breeding at 11 localities decreased from above 500 pairs during 1978–1987 to 350 pairs from 1995 to 2006. The most northern colony (Lambert's Bay) was extinct by 1999 and there were substantial decreases at the two largest colonies (Malgas and Dassen Islands), also north of Cape Town. There was long-term stability at three smaller colonies near Saldanha and fluctuating growth at Robben Island near Cape Town, where the colony was twice affected by oil spills. Between Cape Point and Cape Hangklip, two colonies were monitored and their numbers increased. Farther east, numbers at the Dyer Island group showed a slight decrease. These trends are consistent with a reduced abundance of West Coast rock lobsters Jasus lalandii in the north and an expansion of this resource to the east, but not yet as far as Dyer Island. Rock lobsters were the most important item in the diet of bank cormorants to the north of Cape Town. Keywords: bank cormorant; food; Jasus lalandii ; Phalacrocorax neglectus ; oil spill; population trend; rock lobster; South Africa African Journal of Marine Science 2008, 30(1): 161–166

Some Bank Cormorants, Phalacrocorax neglectus, breed when two years old, but others defer breeding until aged three years. Their mean age at breeding is about 2.5 years. Although some Cape Cormorants, P. capensis, breed when 1.5 years old or less, their breeding success may be poor at this age and the usual pattern of summer breeding probably means that most do not breed until they are about two years old. Poor feeding conditions may cause postponement of breeding by Cape Cormorants until they are three years old.

At Robben and Malgas islands off western South Africa, the main breeding season for bank cormorants Phalacrocorax neglectus normally extends from May to October. At Ichaboe and Mercury islands, off central Namibia, most breeding activity is usually concentrated between November and April. The overall number of breeding pairs of bank cormorants fell from 8672 in 1978–80 to 4888 in 1995–1997. Human disturbance resulted in the loss of four colonies and reduced populations at six others. About 3000 pairs were lost from the Mercury and Ichaboe islands because of displacement of birds from Mercury Island by Cape fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus in the 1980s and a severe reduction in food off central Namibia in the 1990s. Competition with seals for space occurs at several other localities. Using IUCN criteria, the bank cormorant merits classification as `vulnerable'.

Summary Crawford, R.J.M., Dyer, B.M. & Brooke, R.K. 1994. Breeding nomadism in southern African seabirds-constraints, causes and conservation. Ostrich 65:231-246. Fourteen species of seabirds representing three orders and five families breed in southern Africa. Nomadism in the breeding populations of 13 of these seabirds is examined. African Penguins Spheniscus demersus, Cape Gannets Morus capensis. Bank Cormorants Phalacrocorax neglectus, Whitebreasted Cormorants P. carbo and White Pelicans Pelecanus onocrotalus show strong fidelity to specific localities. Caspian Terns Sterna caspia change breeding localities at a low frequency; Cape Cormorants P. capensis, Hartlaub's Gulls Larus hartlaubii and Swift S. bergii and Roseate S. dougallii Terns at a higher frequency. At some localities, Bank Cormorants remain at the same breeding sites for extended periods, whereas Crowned Cormorants P. coronatus, Whitebreasted Cormorants, Kelp Gulls L. dominicanus, Hartlaub's Gulls, Damara Terns S. balaenarum, Swift Terns ...

Summary Cooper, J. 1987. Biology of the Bank Cormorant, Part 5: Clutch size, eggs and incubation. Ostrich 58: 1–8. The Bank Cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus, a marine species endemic to southern Africa, produced a clutch of one to three eggs (mean clutch size 2,02; modal clutch size two). Clutch size did not vary through the breeding season or with replacement laying. Mean egg dimensions were 59,0 x 38,4 mm (50,4 g). Mean egg mass loss during incubation was 9,4%. Egg size decreased with order of laying, the third eggs of three-egg clutches being the smallest of all. Mean egg size increased and then decreased through the season. Eggs comprised 13,3% shell, 17,5% yolk and 69,3% albumen and had a mean energy content of 207 kJ. Both sexes incubated, by placing the eggs on their webbed feet. Eggs hatched asynchronously in the order they were laid. The mean laying interval (3,0 d) and hatching interval (2,7 d) did not differ significantly. Laying-hatching intervals averaged 29,6 d and decreased with order of l...

Summary Cooper, J. 1986. Biology of the Bank Cormorant, Part 4: Nest construction and characteristics. Ostrich 57: 170–179. Bank Cormorants Phalacrocorax neglectus construct their nests of material gathered by diving. Males undertake diving bouts of approximately 3–5 min, made up of several dives lasting on average 28 s. Nest material is gathered throughout the breeding cycle: number of diving bouts per day varies from a mean of 7,6 during pre-egg laying to 1,5 bouts per day when rearing young in the nest. Nest building recommences within 24 h of loss of nest due to storms. Both sexes occasionally steal nest material from the nests of neighbours. Bank Cormorants sometimes defecate onto their nests. This is assumed to make the nests better able to withstand rough seas. Nest construction takes approximately 34 d, a period similar to that of other ground-nesting species of cormorants. Construction of a nest in 34 d represents 238 diving bouts of a total duration of 18 h. Nests are heavy (up to 6 kg) and are ...

Summary Cooper, J. 1981. Biology of the Bank Cormorant, Part 1: Distribution, population size, movements and conservation. Ostrich 52: 208–215. The Bank Cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus is a marine species, endemic to southern Africa. Its non-breeding range extends from Walvis Bay to Cape Agulhas. Breeding range extends from Hollamsbird Island to Quoin Rock. Its distribution is broadly similar to that of kelp beds Ecklonia maxima. A total of 44 breeding localities supports approximately 18 000 adult birds; 12 800 (71%) occur on two islands (Ichaboe and Mercury) north of large kelp beds. Adult Bank Cormorants are resident but juveniles may disperse several hundred kilometres. The species is not considered to be seriously at risk to disturbance at most breeding localities. However, modern expansion of fishing activities may affect the very large populations of Ichaboe and Mercury Islands.

Summary Cooper, J. 1985. Biology of the Bank Cormorant, Part 3: Foraging behaviour. Ostrich 56: 86–95. The Bank Cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus, endemic to southern Africa, is primarily a solitary inshore forager. Bank Cormorants forage Primarily on the bottom among kelp beds but also may forage over shingle or coarse sand substrates or in midwater. Breeding birds forage up to 9 km from their colony. Little is known of foraging depth but birds may dive as deep as 28 m. Mean dive duration was 44,9 s and ratio of dives to surface rests was 2,18. In most cases prey is swallowed under water, presumably to avoid kleptoparasitism. Bank Cormorants foraged during daylight hours from before sunrise to after sunset. Birds did not forage in exceptionally rough seas. Mean female foraging bout duration (84,3 min) was significantly longer than that of males (68,4 min) in breeding individuals. Breeding males undertook significantly more foraging bouts (3,47 boutdday) than did females (3,02 bouts/day). No significant d...

Summary Cooper J. 1985. Biology of the Bank Cormorant, Part 2: Morphometrics, plumage, bare parts and moult. Ostrich 56: 79–85. The Bank cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus is a medium-sized, heavily built but relatively short-tailed cormorant. Males average 2 107 g, females 1794 g. There are significant differences, but overlaps, in mass, wing length, bill, tarsus and tail length between the sexes of breeding adults. The species is all black; adults have a white rump patch and white filoplumes on the head and neck in prenuptial plumage. The white rump patch is lost during breeding. Bare parts are black except for the iris (the only useful aging character) which is dark brown in juveniles, green in subadults and horizontally divided orange-brown above, green below, in adults. Partial albinism is common but leucism is not. Adults can moult while breeding but it seems likely that most moult occurs outside the breeding season. Adults and a single subadult examined exhibited Staffelmauser or stepwise moult of t...

Two free-living seabirds (the African penguin Spheniscus demersus and the bank cormorant Phalacrocorax neglectus) were equipped with stomach temperature-loggers to study body temperature changes during foraging. Body temperature in these endotherms was environmentally and activity-dependent and varied in the case of the cormorant by over 5 °C. Considerations of heat flux show that such flexibility confers considerable energetic advantages: by allowing body temperature to drop when the heat loss to the environment is high, such as in water, birds may save the energy that would normally be necessary to compensate for this drop. It appears that, in cormorants, low body temperature resulting from extended time in water can subsequently be elevated using solar energy when the birds return to land in a manner similar to that of ectotherms. In the better-insulated penguins, muscle-generated heat during swimming is used to re-elevate low body temperature. Continued swimming eventually causes body temperature to rise above normal resting levels so that metabolic rate could theoretically be dramatically reduced immediately post-exercise when the temperature drops to some critical level before any increase in metabolism is necessary to correct it.