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With the fundamental and design processes established, this chapter dives into occupant modeling theory and techniques. Following Chapter 2, it starts with basic concepts of occupant behavior and occupant actions. It provides some retrospective analysis of how occupants are currently modeled in design practice and building codes (based on several recent international surveys). Next, the chapter reviews a wide spectrum of models in increasing levels of complexity, including: schedules, rule-based models, various stochastic models, agent-based models, and personas. With the types of models established, theoretical and practical insights are provided regarding model development and verification. While this chapter is mainly focused on theory, it also provides an overview of methods to incorporate occupant models into BPS tools. Finally, with the introduction of more complex and less transparent occupant models, the chapter provides some examples and insights about communicating their results to different stakeholders.

Sensing technologies are essential parts of the smart building paradigm. In recent years, an increasing number of research studies are focusing on using sensing technologies to understand the influences of indoor environmental conditions on the occupant’s health and comfort. Such studies provide a critical perspective on improved human-building interactions and optimized building operations. This research aims to provide a systematic literature review of various sensing techniques and their applications in improving occupant well-being. The authors consulted the guideline put forward by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), ASHRAE Guideline 10-2016, as a framework to categorize different research studies. This research summarizes and discusses both academic and applied studies pertaining to indoor air quality, acoustic comfort, thermal conditions, illumination, odor, and vibrational disturbances. The review results show that, in the built environment, using sensing technologies to mitigate factors disturbing occupant well-being is critical but relevant research is still in its early stage, and most of the current research has focused on indoor air quality and thermal condition. This chapter has identified four main research gaps, 1) cost-effectiveness, 2) sensor range and positioning, 3) data interface and privacy, and 4) occupant expectations and subjective interactions, and provided recommendations for future research.

This study reports an empirical analysis of an all-electric, Net Zero Energy Housing (NZEH) development located in a mixed-humid climate zone (4A, Virginia, USA). Circuit-level energy monitors were used to measure energy consumption and energy production data (solar photovoltaic) at 1-hr intervals in six identical apartments over 24 months. The study employs a multi-step case study methodology to a) empirically evaluate energy consumption and production data, b) identify the temporal variability of energy consumption and production data at different time scales, c) understand the impact(s) of weather and human-building interaction on energy consumption and production, and d) synthesize the study’s “lessons learned” toward data-driven recommendations for future NZEH researchers and practitioners. The study found that the development’s net zero energy goal was achieved in three of six case units and that NZEH housing performance was more influenced by human-building interaction than weather variability. The analysis also found the solar photovoltaic (PV) performance to be reliable across the sampled units over the periods of measurement, suggesting that solar PV could be oversized as an approach to overcome verifiability in HBI and achieve NZEH performance goals.

Research on green-certified buildings has often been focused on the benefits of green standards, such as energy efficiency, smart growth, resource conservation, and health protection. Recent studies suggest the adoption of a reductionist sustainability planning language can turn green-certified houses into luxury goods, attracting White, prime-age, college-educated households with some pro-environmental attitudes who replace existing long-term, lower-income residents in core urban areas. While many factors may work together in driving neighborhood change and gentrification in cities, the question this study aims to address is to what extent the supply of green-certified units can affect neighborhood change and gentrification? We use Central Virginia’s Multiple Listing Service (MLS) housing market transactions data and the U.S. Census Bureau’s socioeconomic data to present the differential effect of new construction of market-rate, green-certified units in a natural experiment using difference-in-differences estimates. We find that neighborhoods that include new, green-certified units have experienced a statistically significant increase in population, supporting new construction and positively affecting house prices. We also detect some negative effects on minorities and minority owners, but these effects have not yet reached statistical significance. This study finds strong evidence of green housing providing the conditions that make areas ripe for gentrification, but more studies should follow up to better measure and generalize this finding.

To improve the construction industry’s capacity to deliver sustainable infrastructure, guidance on delivering green building systems needs to be more usable. Green buildings have certifications and ratings in place that ensure that projects are environmentally responsible and meet standards in resource efficiency. EarthCraft Multifamily (ECMF), an evolving green building certification, has been successful in increasing the delivery of energy-efficient affordable housing, and this study leverages user experience (UX) methodologies to understand how to further improve ECMF and replicate its success. This study identifies the impact ECMF tools and resources, such as the program manual, worksheet, and technical guidelines, have on enhancing project delivery for architects. This study conducted data analysis on project specifications, heuristic evaluation data, and stakeholder interview data. As the strengths and weaknesses of ECMF were identified, knowledge on the usability of the green building certification program was unveiled. Heuristic evaluations data show that accessibility and usability issues are present in ECMF resources. Interview data show that architects’ experiences with ECMF resources were affected by some of the usability issues identified in the heuristic evaluation data. Coded interview transcripts show the most prominent participant-identified improvements represented within the data. Resources need appropriate visual representation such as readability and hierarchy to improve their usability. Understanding how ECMF resources are utilized during project delivery allows for the appropriate content and options to be strategically framed to improve accessibility and enhance user decision making. ECMF resources can allow for the inclusion of a broader set of stakeholders by lowering the level of expertise required for sustainable infrastructure delivery. Published version

The U.S. government has included green building policy in affordable housing programs for years. However, little to no evidence is available to elucidate this policy’s efficacy in the context of energy performance and financial savings. This paper reports a longitudinal study that investigates time effects of such policy on the energy performance in low-income housing units. The researchers collected monthly energy use data over three years from 310 residential units and conducted profile analysis and MANOVA. Results indicate that (1) green buildings’ energy performance is consistent across years; (2) construction type, technology level, and apartment size significantly and consistently affect energy use; and (3) occupant type inconsistently affects energy use. Results suggest financial savings of $648 per year due to reduced energy usage in green buildings. The savings equate to 9.3%, 5.6%, and 3.5% of annual income for extremely low-income, very low-income, and low-income families, respectively. Savings represent a 26.6%–37.5% reduction of energy expenditure for low-income households. Findings strongly suggest that green building incentives and the diffusion of green building practice is resulting in affordable housing systems.

The United States has a long-term goal to reduce 50% of energy usage in buildings based on 2010 consumption levels. Home energy efficiency is often measured by laboratory experiments and computational simulation. Thus, there is little to no quantifiable evidence showing the extent of energy efficiency homes can achieve within the larger context of green building standards. The objective of this research is to identify actual home energy performance as an effect of green building technologies by comparing energy use from real-world observations and energy modeling. Results indicate a significant reduction of energy consumption at 43.7% per unit or 43.4% per square foot (i.e., 0.093 m2) and substantial financial savings at $628.4 per unit or $0.80 per square foot (i.e., $8.6 per m2) annually. Savings account for 2% of median annual household income or 46% of energy cost expenditures for an American home. Results also identify the construction type as a significant factor, yet building technology is not the only factor influencing a home's energy efficiency. The findings contribute to the body of knowledge in three aspects: (1) simulated energy usage is higher than actual energy usage; (2) energy modeling via simulation tools is particularly accurate for new construction; and (3) energy modeling, especially for existing buildings, is not accurate due to largely varying occupant behaviors.

This editorial describes challenges and opportunities from an international effort to align the building HVAC industry toward a user-centered built environment.The HVAC industry is experiencing an ...

Residential buildings have accounted for more than 20% of total energy usage in the United States over the last decade. Reducing household energy consumption has environmental and economic impacts. Building scientists and construction engineers have attempted to obtain accurate energy use prediction; however, few have focused on the relationship between construction cost and energy use. This chapter investigates the associations among detailed construction cost takeoffs and actual energy use in multifamily green buildings. The researchers employ advanced machine-learning analytics to model the correlations between construction costs and energy use data collected from multifamily residential units. The findings identify cost divisions in the construction stage that significantly correlate with energy use in the operational stage. The model allows developers to predict energy consumption based on construction costs and enables them to adjust their investment strategies to amplify the energy efficiency of green building technologies.

The United States needs comprehensive policymaking reforms that promote sustainable residential development. This study investigates the feasibility of statewide, zero-energy affordable housing by analyzing historical data on the climate, energy use, and solar system costs in the Commonwealth of Virginia. The hypothesis examined is the net present cost of implementation of rooftop residential solar systems to achieve zero-energy, multifamily buildings of the U.S. Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) program is lower than the discounted present cost of energy of otherwise identical buildings that run without renewable energy generation systems. We propose a generalizable framework for analyzing the feasibility of achieving regionwide or statewide zero-energy affordable housing. To validate the framework, we employ a longitudinal sample of monthly energy use data from 2013 to 2016, obtained from 310 residential units of 15 LIHTC developments across Virginia. Based on statistical regression analysis, energy simulation, and simulation-based risk analysis, we find that the net present value of investments in zero-energy affordable housing can be positive with a low risk. The investment value varies often depending on the zero-energy building definition, weather characteristics, retail price of electricity, and incentive rate. The results suggest that many other southern states can accrue benefits from zero-energy affordable housing.

Buildings account for a significant portion of energy consumption and carbon emissions around the world and increasingly scholars and practitioners are re-thinking strategies that mitigate use. This paper reports an empirical study aimed at identifying the relationship between building technology and resident behavior and the joint effects on energy consumption in residential buildings. Unlike previous work that isolated effects of technology or behavior on energy consumption, this study investigates their interactions. The researchers collected technical and behavioral data from more than 300 residential units and performed data analysis using energy simulation and multivariate regression techniques. Results identify the interaction effects between building technology and resident behavior and provide quantifiable evidence supporting the hypothesis that “building technology and resident behaviors interact with each other and ultimately affect home energy consumption.” Findings indicate four important resident behaviors that directly correlate to energy consumption and two that indirectly correlate to energy consumption. The research also indicates that only 42% of technological advances directly contribute to home energy efficiency, suggesting that the achievable impact on energy savings depends on both technical advances and behavioral plasticity.

This experiment tested the results of a meta‐analysis of message sidedness (Jackson & Allen, 1987). The results are consistent with the prior meta‐analysis. Two‐sided refutational messages were more persuasive than one‐sided messages, which were in turn more persuasive than two‐sided nonrefutational messages. Testing the generalizability of this finding using 17 messages found consistent effects across the messages.

6 6 M I N PEU D'HUMANITEr CRIED ABDELAZIZ BOUPACHA AS m m French military torturers worked him over after his arrest in %tJ Algiers in 1960. "Pas d'humanite pour les ArabesV responded his tormentors. Boupacha, after his eventual release, recounted this unpleasant exchange for Simone de Beauvoir and Gisele Halimi as they collected "testimonies" for their book about Boupacha's daughter, Djamila, who was arrested and tortured at the same time as her father. In one of the more shocking revelations of Rita Maran's disturbing and timely book, Boupacha went on in his declaration to exclaim: "Long live France and justice!" The cry was not sarcastic. Boupacha's astonishing loyalty to the country responsible for his own torture, his daughter's, and that of thousands of other Muslim Algerians is indicative, as Maran points out, of the persevering grasp of the French "civilizing mission" over its victims. "The allure of French cul? ture and civilization," she writes, "was not easily rooted out by the colonized recipients of the civilizing mission, not even in the face of assaults against them that negated all notions of cultured or civilized behavior." Boupacha's daughter, who had joined the revolutionary struggle of the National Liberation Front (FLN) with the nom de guerre "Khelida," also con? tinued to believe in the grandeur of France after her arrest, torture by rape with a bottle, and forced confession to having planted a bomb (defused before ex? plosion) in a University of Algiers restaurant. Djamila Boupacha sought redress through the legal system. Her lawyer was the same Gisele Halimi, a French barrister of Tunisian descent, through whom Djamila retracted her confession and began a civil action against mili? tary commanders for wrongful detention and torture in violation of Article 344 of the French Penal Code.