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Being duped is an aversive experience which people are motivated to avoid. For this reason, especially people with a high fear of exploitation (i.e., people high in victim sensitivity; VS) often behave pre-emptively selfish and defensive in socially uncertain situations. Because the cognitive and motivational processes underlying such defensiveness have received little attention so far, we conducted two studies aiming to close this research gap. In Study 1 (n = 84), we used virtual reality technology to examine whether social distancing, hostile interpretations of an interaction partner’s intentions and behavior, and legitimizing cognitions regarding own selfish reactions (as elements of a suspicious mindset) mediate the effect of VS on uncooperativeness. Results did not show the expected mediation, but VS was still related to hostile information processing and fear of exploitation. In Study 2 (n = 273), we extended these findings by showing that defensive reactions of people high in VS can be attenuated if a sense of control is reinforced. Together, the two studies crucially expand our knowledge of the defensive motivational system in victim-sensitive individuals.

Objective: Subjective social status (SSS) refers to individuals' perceived position in the social hierarchy. Prior research suggests that SSS relates to health above and beyond objective socioeconomic status (OSS) such as income, occupation, or education. Most findings in this field, however, stem from cross-sectional studies or longitudinal studies with one-time measurements of SSS only. The aim of this study was to examine reciprocal longitudinal associations of both national SSS (i.e., comparison with people in one's country) and local SSS (i.e., comparison with people in one's social environment) with health-related quality of life. Method: A two-wave cross-lagged panel design with a 2-year follow-up was used to analyze data for national SSS, local SSS, physical and mental health-related quality of life (PHQL and MHQL), as well as OSS from initially 2,156 individuals who participated in the German Socioeconomic Panel Study-Innovation Sample (SOEP-IS). Results: Local and national SSS at baseline predicted PHQL at follow up and partially mediated associations between OSS and PHQL. Local SSS (but not national SSS) also predicted MHQL at follow-up but this association was only marginally significant after inclusion of OSS in the model. Regarding a reverse health-to-SSS pathway, PHQL (but not MHQL) at baseline predicted local and national SSS at follow-up and these associations were partially mediated by income. Conclusion: This study extends cross-sectional observations by confirming that both local and national SSS have unique longitudinal associations with health and provides novel insights into longitudinal pathways linking SSS, OSS, and health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Victim sensitivity (VS)—a personality trait reflecting the anxious expectation of being exploited—reliably predicts egoistic behavior in interpersonal situations. Here, we look at intragroup situations and investigate whether even one highly victim-sensitive individual can have a detrimental effect of solidarity and cooperativeness on the entire group. Two studies—one field study with community residents from Philippine villages who played a solidarity game (N urn:x-wiley:24750387:media:jts576:jts576-math-0001 800 individuals, 30 villages) and one lab study with participants in a small-group setting (N = 144 individuals, 48 groups) who played a public goods game—show that the highest VS score in a group negatively predicts solidarity and cooperation in the group, especially when external stressors (e.g., a natural disaster and a climate of distrust) are present and group-level resilience factors (e.g., in-group identification and task enjoyment) are absent. These results are relevant for research on the intragroup processes both from a basic as well as from an applied perspective.

Low social status has been linked to cardiovascular disease. Subjective social status (SSS), which represents one's perceived position in a social hierarchy, has been suggested to predict health outcomes beyond objective measures of socioeconomic status. The present study examined if lower SSS is related to reduced nocturnal blood pressure (BP) dipping, a risk factor for cardiovascular disease.In this cross-sectional study, a community sample of 53 healthy adults underwent 24-h ambulatory BP monitoring. All participants provided information on SSS and objective measures of socioeconomic status (i.e., education, occupation, and income). SSS was measured in comparison to others in the country (national SSS) as well as in comparison to one's social environment (local SSS) using the German versions of the MacArthur Scales.Analyses found that participants with low local SSS exhibited attenuated nocturnal diastolic blood pressure dipping (β = 0.29, 95% CI [0.01, 0.57], p = .043) and mean arterial pressure dipping (β = 0.29, 95% CI [0.01, 0.57], p = .041). These associations remained significant after adjusting for objective socioeconomic status. No significant associations between national SSS and cardiovascular measures were observed.In conclusion, one's perceived social position in the social environment (i.e., local SSS) is associated with nocturnal BP dipping. Therefore, local SSS may be an important psychosocial factor linking social inequality and cardiovascular health.

Purpose Subjective social status (SSS) reflects individuals' perceived position in a social hierarchy. Low SSS is associated with several mental health impairments. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to examine if unemployed individuals report lower SSS in Germany (national SSS) and lower SSS in their social community (local SSS) than employed individuals. Moreover, the relationship between unemployment, SSS, and mental health was examined. Patients and methods 113 unemployed and 1117 employed individuals from a representative German panel provided information on their national and local SSS, their monthly income and their mental health. SSS was assessed with the German version of the MacArthur Scales. Mental health was measured using the mental component scale (MCS) of the SF-12. Results Unemployed individuals reported significantly lower national SSS, local SSS and mental health compared to employed participants. Mediational analyses suggest that the negative effect of employment status on mental health was explained via a reduction of national SSS. Local SSS did not mediate the association of employment status and mental health. Conclusion Unemployment is associated with lower SSS and reduced mental health. The perceived position relative to others in the country (ie, national SSS) mediates the association between employment status and mental health.

Frank Euteneuer,1,2 Philipp Süssenbach3 1Department of Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Medical School Berlin, Berlin, Germany; 2Division of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Philipps University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany; 3Fachhochschule des Mittelstands (FHM) Bielefeld–University of Applied Sciences, Bielefeld, GermanyCorrespondence: Frank EuteneuerDepartment of Psychology, Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Medical School, Berlin, Rüdesheimer Str. 50, Berlin, 14197, GermanyTel +49 30 76 68 37 5 820Email frank.euteneuer@medicalschool-berlin.deObjective: Low socioeconomic status is associated with short sleep duration. Most studies in this area have used measures of objective socioeconomic status (OSS) such as income, education, or occupation. Subjective social status (SSS) refers to one’s perceived standing in the social hierarchy. Cross-sectional findings suggest that lower SSS is associated with short sleep duration beyond the effect of OSS. This work examines longitudinal associations between SSS, OSS, and short sleep duration.Methods: Reciprocal associations of national SSS (ie, comparison with people in one’s country), local SSS (ie, comparison with people in one’s social environment), and OSS (ie, income and education) with sleep duration were examined across two data waves with a two-year time lag using cross-lagged panel modeling. Participants of this secondary analysis were 2156 individuals who participated in a representative German panel.Results: Lower national SSS (but not local SSS) and lower income at baseline predicted short sleep duration at follow-up. When considering indicators of SSS and OSS simultaneously, only national SSS remained a significant predictor of short sleep duration. A half-longitudinal mediation analysis indicated that national SSS mediates associations between lower OSS and short sleep duration.Conclusion: One’s perceived socioeconomic position in the country is a relevant predictor of short sleep duration and could be a psychological link between OSS and short sleep duration as mediation analyses suggest. Future studies on socioeconomic status and sleep should thus take into account subjective measures of socioeconomic status to gain a clearer picture of the social determinants of sleep.Keywords: socioeconomic status, subjective social status, short sleep duration, cross-lagged panel

Objective The present research examines the link between moral foundations (Graham et al., 2013; Haidt, 2007) and prosociality. Adopting a person × situation interaction perspective, we suggest that individualizers (whose morality is driven by considerations of harm and justice) act in accordance with their moral values particularly in situations that contain cues of neediness. Method In Study 1, we measured participants' visual attention toward varying degrees of suffering (within-participants). In Studies 2 and 3 participants were exposed to strong need or not (between-participants) and their moral regard and prosocial intent was assessed. Results In the face of visual cues of suffering (Study 1) or the presence of strong need (Studies 2 and 3), individualizers reacted with increased attention toward suffering, greater moral responsibility, and stronger prosocial intent. Individuals high on the binding foundations (whose morality is driven by ingroup loyalty, authority, and purity), however, avoided suffering irrespective of its degree (Study 1), did not oblige themselves with moral responsibility (Study 2), and reported reduced prosocial intent in reaction to need (Study 3). Conclusion An interactionist account of foundation-based prosociality demonstrates that individualizers are likely to help when helping might be perceived as futile, however this potential needs to be activated.

The present research examined the effect of exposure to multiple charity appeals on a range of variables that are strongly predictive of moral behavior in two lab experiments. Using videos (Experim...

Moral Foundations Theory proposes five intuition-based moral concerns: Care and Fairness ("individualizing foundations") as well as Loyalty, Authority, and Sanctity ("binding foundations"). In studies carried out in Italy, Spain, and Germany, the authors examined how these concerns are associated with the acceptance of modern myths about sexual aggression (AMMSA), and how both jointly predict rape victim blaming. Overall, victim blaming was positively predicted by Authority and Sanctity, and negatively predicted by Care and Fairness. Although victim blaming was best predicted by AMMSA, moral concerns also contributed to its prediction, partly independently, partly mediated through AMMSA, and in the case of Sanctity in interaction with AMMSA. Discussion highlights how integrating moral foundations in the investigation of victim blaming and AMMSA across different cultural contexts may deepen our understanding of why, in each cultural context, victim blaming and related beliefs are resistant to change.

Implicit evaluations reflect people’s gut response toward an attitude object and are based on associative processes. They are the starting ground for more reflective processes and subsequent explicit evaluations. The present research examined determinants and consequences of implicit evaluations in a rape case. Situational (i.e. specifics of the rape case) and personal factors (i.e. rape myth acceptance) were demonstrated to influence both explicit and implicit judgments of the rape case. Moreover, sex of participant influenced participants’ implicit evaluations but affected explicit judgments only indirectly via the implicit evaluation. People’s gut response was shown to affect their explicit judgment of the case, and this effect was particularly pronounced for people with a low need for cognition (i.e. people who do not like to engage in effortful processing). The discussion focuses on the role of implicit cognition and implicit biases in judicial decision-making.

Two studies explore whether people intuitively approve or rather disapprove of a victim personally retaliating against an offender. Participants in Study 1 were introduced to the case of Ameneh Bahrami, an Iranian woman who had been blinded by a jealous suitor and who was given the opportunity to blind her perpetrator in return. Results show that participants who were instructed to complete a secondary task (cognitive load condition) reacted most positively to Ameneh Bahrami’s decision to retaliate. Participants in Study 2 read vignettes about fictitious offenses. Participants low in need for cognition approved more of the victim retaliating against the offender when they adopted an intuitive (vs. a reflective) mind-set. Together, these findings demonstrate that people intuitively approve of retaliation carried out by victims.

In two studies, the influence of victim sensitivity, defined as individual differences in the extent to which people react emotionally when confronted with injustice to their own disadvantage, on intergroup emotions in potentially exploitative intergroup situations was examined. Using a cross-lagged design embedded in the German reunification context ( N = 451), it was found that West Germans high in victim sensitivity felt more anger toward East Germans and angst for their ingroup’s future vitality 2 years later. In a second experimental study ( N = 63), the effect of victim sensitivity on intergroup anger and intergroup angst was shown to be dependent upon perceived exploitation by an outgroup and explained unique variance over and beyond ideological variables (social dominance orientation, right-wing authoritarianism, political orientation). Taken together, these results suggest that victim sensitivity is an important variable to consider in potentially exploitative situations, not only on the interpersonal, but also on the intergroup level.

Background: Previous research indicates that physical activity may alter the number of immune cells. We examined whether increasing or decreasing the level of physical activity affects circulating lymphocyte and monocyte counts in patients with somatization syndromes and patients with major depression. Methods: Thirty-eight participants with major depression, 26 participants with somatization syndromes and 47 healthy controls participated in the study. Using an experimental within-subject design, participants were involved in 1 week of increased physical activity (daily exercise sessions) and 1 week of reduced physical activity. Counts of total lymphocytes, lymphocyte subsets and monocytes were determined before and after each trial. Linear mixed models adjusted for sex, body mass index, age, fitness status and the order of trials were used for longitudinal data analysis. Results: One week of exercise increases the number of monocytes in healthy controls (po.05), but not in patients with somatization syndromes or patients with major depression. In addition, after 1 week of exercise, depressive symptoms were reduced in patients with major depression (po.05) while somatoform symptoms were reduced (po.05) in both clinical groups. Baseline comparisons and mixed models indicated reduced T helper cell counts in patients with somatization syndromes. Limitations: Relatively small sample size. The time of physical activity was relatively short and restricted to low-graded exercise. Conclusions: This study demonstrates a blunted mobilization of monocytes by exercise in both patients with somatization syndromes and patients with major depression. In addition, even one week of exercise reduces somatoform and depressive symptoms.

Objective: The present study investigates the effects of graphic cigarette warnings compared to text-only cigarette warnings on smokers' explicit (i.e. ratings of the packages, cognitions about smoking, perceived health risk, quit intentions) and implicit attitudes. In addition, participants' visual attention towards the graphic warnings was recorded using eye-tracking methodology.Design and methods: Sixty-three smokers participated in the present study and either viewed graphic cigarette warnings with aversive and non-aversive images or text-only warnings. Data were analysed using analysis of variance and correlation analysis.Results: Especially, graphic cigarette warnings with aversive content drew attention and elicited high threat. However, whereas attention directed to the textual information of the graphic warnings predicted smokers' risk perceptions, attention directed to the images of the graphic warnings did not. Moreover, smokers' in the graphic warning condition reported more positive cognitions about smoking, thus revealing cognitive dissonance.Conclusion: Smokers employ defensive psychological mechanisms when confronted with threatening warnings. Although aversive images attract attention, they do not promote health knowledge. Implications for graphic health warnings and the importance of taking their content (i.e. aversive vs. non-aversive images) into account are discussed.

A large body of research has demonstrated that people who are habitually sensitive towards victimization tend to behave uncooperatively and immorally in socially uncertain situations. The “Sensitivity to Mean Intentions” (SeMI) model (Gollwitzer & Rothmund 2009) aims at describing social-cognitive mechanisms that underlie and explain this effect. The model posits that in socially uncertain situations, victim-sensitive individuals are asymmetrically sensitive to cues of untrustworthiness. When such cues are present, suspicious cognitive and motivational reactions are triggered in victim-sensitive individuals, and they behave preemptively selfish to avoid being exploited by others. Although functional at times, victim sensitivity does have dysfunctional side effects. The present article reviews recent findings regarding the SeMI model and sketches potential avenues for future research.

The authors present a metacognitive approach to influences of rape myth acceptance (RMA) on the processing of rape-related information and rape proclivity. In Study 1, participants ( N = 264) completed an RMA scale and subsequently reported the subjective strength (e.g., importance, certainty) of their RMA. Then they read about a rape case, viewed a photograph of the alleged crime scene, and rated the defendant’s guilt on several items. Depending on condition, the photograph contained either RMA-applicable stimuli (e.g., alcoholic beverages) or neutral stimuli. Higher RMA predicted lower ratings of defendant guilt especially when applicable stimuli were present and RMA was strong. Study 2 ( N = 85) showed that RMA-related attitude strength also moderated the effect of RMA on self-reported rape proclivity. Results of both studies indicate that the subjective strength of rape-related beliefs may be reliably assessed and serves as an important moderator of effects of RMA. The implications of these findings for prevention programs as well as future directions for research are discussed.

Schematic influences of rape myth acceptance (RMA) on visual information processing were studied. After reading a short text on a rape case, students viewed a “police photograph” of the plaintiff's living room, where the rape allegedly happened, while their eye-movements were recorded. The photograph contained two myth-consistent cues, one being expected in the situation (wine bottle and glasses), the other unexpected (poster of a nude male). Results of Study 1 ( N = 60) showed that participants higher in RMA fixated the expected cue both earlier and less long, which may indicate hypervigilance and greater ease of processing, respectively. Higher RMA also predicted longer initial fixation of the unexpected cue. These processing differences mediated participants' verdicts and blame judgments. In Study 2 ( N = 30), participants' level of RMA was manipulated experimentally via social norm feedback. This manipulation significantly affected eye-movement patterns for the expected myth-consistent cue. Results support the notion that RMA actively guides visual information processing of relevant stimuli.

Zusammenfassung. Die Vergewaltigungsneigung (VN) wird oft mittels szenariobasierter Verfahren (SBV) erfasst, bei denen Befragte angeben, ob sie ebenso gehandelt hätten wie ein Protagonist, der sexuell gewalttätiges Verhalten zeigt. Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt die Weiterentwicklung eines SBV vor, mit dem sich eine generelle Neigung zu sexueller Aggression erfassen lässt. Männliche Studierende (N = 100) bearbeiteten sowohl Gewaltszenarien als auch Fragebogenskalen zur Konstruktvalidierung. Das neue Verfahren korrelierte hypothesengemäß hoch positiv mit einem etablierten SBV, wies jedoch einen höheren Mittelwert und eine weniger schiefe Verteilung auf. Es war unabhängig von sozialer Erwünschtheit und korrelierte positiv mit Vergewaltigungsmythenakzeptanz, feindseligem Sexismus und selbstberichteter sexueller Aggression. Auch die Ergebnisse einer zweiten Studie (N = 60) bestätigen die Konstruktvalidität des neuen SBV.

Subjective social status (SSS) predicts health outcomes above and beyond objective measures of social status. Both objective and subjective measures of social status are strongly related with depression. Cognitive mechanisms such as depressive cognitions, rumination, and a negative cognitive style are seen as both concomitant and antecedent to depression. This experiment examined the causal role of SSS in developing depressive thinking. Participants were randomly assigned to a low and a high status group and followed a manipulation procedure targeting their SSS. Depressive thinking was subsequently assessed by depressive cognitions, stress-reactive state rumination and negative cognitive style. Low status participants exhibited higher levels of depressive cognitions and rumination compared to their high status counterparts, but both groups did not differ regarding their cognitive style. Findings support the causal nature of the relationship between SSS and depressive thinking. Several mechanisms of how low SSS may lead to depression are discussed.

In two studies, the authors examined the influence of rape myth acceptance (RMA) on participants’ attention toward the potential victim versus perpetrator in a rape case. In Study 1 ( N = 90), participants selected information that focused on either the male defendant or the female victim. With increasing RMA, participants preferred information that focused on the victim rather than the defendant. In Study 2 ( N = 41), participants viewed photographs depicting both victim and defendant while their eye movements were recorded. With increasing RMA, participants spent less time inspecting the defendant relative to the victim. In both studies, higher RMA predicted stronger anti-victim and pro-defendant judgments, replicating previous research. Taken together, these results support the assumption that RMA guides participants’ attention, leading to a focus on the alleged rape victim and away from the alleged perpetrator. Implications of the current research and future directions are discussed.

The authors propose a framework distinguishing two types of lateral attitude change (LAC): (a) generalization effects, where attitude change toward a focal object transfers to related objects, and (b) displacement effects, where only related attitudes change but the focal attitude does not change. They bring together examples of LAC from various domains of research, outline the conditions and underlying processes of each type of LAC, and develop a theoretical framework that enables researchers to study LAC more systematically in the future. Compared with established theories of attitude change, the LAC framework focuses on lateral instead of focal attitude change and encompasses both generalization and displacement. Novel predictions and designs for studying LAC are presented.

People reliably differ in the extent to which they are sensitive to being victimized by others. Importantly, “victim sensitivity” predicts how people behave in social dilemma situations: Victim-sensitive individuals are less likely to trust others and more likely to behave uncooperatively - especially in socially uncertain situations. This pattern can be explained with the Sensitivity to Mean Intentions (SeMI) model, according to which victim sensitivity entails a specific and asymmetric sensitivity to contextual cues that are associated with untrustworthiness. Recent research is largely in line with the model’s prediction, but some issues have remained conceptually unresolved so far. For instance, it is unclear why and how victim sensitivity becomes a stable trait and which developmental and cognitive processes are involved in such stabilization. In the present article, we will discuss the psychological processes that contribute to a stabilization of victim sensitivity within persons, both across the life span (“ontogenetic stabilization”) and across social situations (“actual-genetic stabilization”). Our theoretical framework starts from the assumption that experiences of being exploited threaten a basic need, the need to trust. This need is so fundamental that experiences that threaten it receive a considerable amount of attention and trigger strong affective reactions. Associative learning processes can then explain (a) how certain contextual cues (e.g., facial expressions) become conditioned stimuli that elicit equally strong responses, (b) why these contextual untrustworthiness cues receive much more attention than, for instance, trustworthiness cues, and (c) how these cues shape spontaneous social expectations (regarding other people’s intentions). Finally, avoidance learning can explain why these cognitive processes gradually stabilize and become a trait: the trait which is referred to as victim sensitivity.

A representative sample of German residents (N = 397) was surveyed with the aim of studying their acceptance of contemporary rape myths (RMA), using items from the Acceptance of Modern Myths About Sexual Aggression Scale [AMMSA; Gerger et al., 2007] in relation to demographic variables (e.g., gender, age), intolerant belief systems (e. g., sexism, islamophobia), the ideologies of rightwing authoritarianism (RWA), and social dominance orientation (SDO), as well as gender identification. Age showed a U-shaped relationship with RMA, whereas gender was unrelated to RMA. For men (women), greater identification with their gender was associated with higher (lower) RMA. Substantial correlations of RMA with intolerant belief systems support the idea of a schema of intolerance. Although RWA and SDO were both related to RMA, only RWA explained unique variance beyond the effects of intolerant belief systems. Results are discussed in comparison to prior studies using mainly student samples. Aggr. Behav. 37:374-385, 2011. (C) 2011 Wiley-Liss, Inc.