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Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is phenotypically heterogeneous and genetically complex. This study aimed to reduce heterogeneity using structural brain imaging to study putative intermediate phenotypes for OCD. We hypothesized that select serotonin gene variants would differ in their relationship with brain volume in specific regions of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuits between OCD patients and controls. In a total of 200 pediatric subjects, we genotyped candidate serotonin genes (SLC6A4, HTR2A, HTR1B, and HTR2C) and conducted structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI) to measure regional brain volumes within CSTC circuits. In males and females separately, we first tested the association between serotonin gene variants and OCD and the effect of serotonin gene variants on brain volume irrespective of diagnosis. We then carried out a series of analyses to assess the effect of genotype-diagnosis interaction on brain volume. In females, but not in males, we identified a statistically significant genotype-diagnosis interaction for two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in HTR2C, rs12860460 (interaction term estimate of 5.45 cc and interaction P value of 9.70e-8) and rs12854485 (interaction term estimate of 4.28 cc and interaction P value of 2.07e-6). The tested allele in each SNP was associated with decreased anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) volume in controls and with increased ACC volume in OCD patients. Our findings suggest that, in females, sequence variation in HTR2C influences ACC volume in pediatric OCD. The variants may contribute to differences in ACC volume and to OCD in a sex-specific manner when acting together with other genetic, biological, and/or environmental factors.

This pilot study was undertaken to determine if there was a significant association between specific glutamate system genes and regional volumes of interest implicated in the pathogenesis of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Volumetric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and genotyping of seven polymorphisms in two genes, glutamate receptor, ionotropic, N-methyl-d-aspartate 2B (GRIN2B) and solute linked carrier, family 1, member 1 (SLC1A1) were conducted in 31 psychotropic-naive pediatric OCD patients. The rs1805476 variant of GRIN2B was associated with left but not right orbital frontal cortex (OFC) (p = 0.04) and right but not left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) volume (p = 0.02). The SLC1A1 rs3056 variant was associated with increased total (p = 0.01), left (p = 0.02) and right (p = 0.02) thalamic volume. These results suggest that GRIN2B and SLC1A1 may be associated with regional volumetric alterations in OFC, ACC, and thalamus in children with OCD.

Background Abnormalities in the amygdala and hippocampus have been implicated in the pathogenesis of major depressive disorder (MDD). To our knowledge, no prior study has examined amygdala-hippocampus anatomy in pediatric patients with familial MDD (at least one first degree relative with MDD). Methods Thirty-two psychotropic-naive patients with familial MDD, aged 8–21 years (12 males and 20 females), and 35 group-matched healthy participants (13 males and 22 females) underwent volumetric magnetic resonance imaging in order to evaluate hippocampal and amygdala volumes. Results Patients with familial MDD had significantly smaller left hippocampal ( p = .007, effect size [d] = .44) and right hippocampal volumes ( p = .025, d=.33) than controls. No differences were noted in amygdala volumes between groups (right: p > .05, left: p > .05). No correlations between hippocampal or amygdala volumes and demographic or clinical variables were noted. Conclusions Reduced hippocampal volume may be suggestive of a risk factor for developing MDD.

Background Anterior cingulate cortex has been implicated in the pathogenesis of major depressive disorder (MDD). With single voxel proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we reported reductions in anterior cingulate glutamatergic concentrations (grouped value of glutamate and glutamine) in 14 pediatric MDD patients versus 14 case-matched healthy control subjects. These changes might reflect a change in glutamate, glutamine, or their combination. Methods Fitting to individually quantify anterior cingulate glutamate and glutamine was performed in these subjects with a new basis set created from data acquired on a 1.5 Tesla General Electric Signa (GE Healthcare, Waukesha, Wisconsin) magnetic resonance imaging scanner with LCModel (Version 6.1-0; Max-Planck-Institute, Gottingen, Germany). Results Reduced anterior cingulate glutamate was observed in MDD patients versus control subjects (8.79 ± 1.68 vs. 11.46 ± 1.55, respectively, p = .0002; 23% decrease). Anterior cingulate glutamine did not differ significantly between patients with MDD and control subjects. Conclusions These findings provide confirmatory evidence of anterior cingulate glutamate alterations in pediatric MDD.

Context Cortical abnormalities have been noted in previous studies of major depressive disorder (MDD). Objective To hypothesize differences in regional cortical thickness among children with MDD, children with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and healthy controls. Design Cross-sectional study of groups. Setting Children's Hospital of Michigan in Detroit. Participants A total of 24 psychotropic drug–naive pediatric patients with MDD (9 boys and 15 girls), 24 psychotropic drug–naive pediatric outpatients with OCD (8 boys and 16 girls), and 30 healthy controls (10 boys and 20 girls). Intervention Magnetic resonance imaging. Main Outcome Measure Cortical thickness. Results In the right hemisphere of the brain, the pericalcarine gyrus was thinner in patients with MDD than in outpatients with OCD ( P = .002) or healthy controls ( P = .04), the postcentral gyrus was thinner in patients with MDD than in outpatients with OCD ( P = .002) or healthy controls ( P = .02), and the superior parietal gyrus was thinner in patients with MDD than in outpatients with OCD ( P = .008) or healthy controls ( P = .03). The outpatients with OCD and the healthy controls did not differ in these regions of the brain. The temporal pole was thicker in patients with MDD than in outpatients with OCD ( P P = .01), both of which groups did not differ in temporal pole thickness. The cuneus was thinner in patients with MDD than in outpatients with OCD ( P = .008), but it did not differ from that in healthy controls. In the left hemisphere, the supramarginal gyrus was thinner in both patients with MDD ( P = .04) and outpatients with OCD ( P = .01) than in healthy controls, and the temporal pole was thicker in patients with MDD than in both healthy controls and outpatients with OCD ( P Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first study to explore cortical thickness in pediatric patients with MDD. Although differences in some regions of the brain would be expected given neurobiological models of MDD, our study highlights some unexpected regions (ie, supramarginal and superior parietal gyri) that merit further investigation. These results underscore the need to expand exploration beyond the frontal-limbic circuit.

The orbital frontal cortex (OFC) has been implicated in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Participants comprised 28 treatment-naive pediatric OCD patients and 21 controls, who were examined using magnetic resonance imaging. OCD patients had larger right but not left OFC white matter volume than controls. This is fresh evidence implicating white matter in OCD.

In this preliminary study, 16 psychotropic-naive pediatric patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) were studied using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and genotyped for six candidate polymorphisms in two glutamate system genes. A significant association was identified between the rs1019385 polymorphism of the glutamate receptor, ionotropic, N-methyl-d-aspartate 2B (GRIN2B) and decreased anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) glutamatergic concentration (Glx) but not with occipital Glx. These results suggest that GRIN2B may be associated with Glx in the ACC, a region consistently implicated in OCD.

Neuroimaging studies have identified alterations in frontostriatal circuitry in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Voxel-based morphometry (VBM) allows for the assessment of differences in gray matter density across the whole brain. VBM has not previously been used to examine regional gray matter density in pediatric OCD patients and the siblings of pediatric OCD patients. Volumetric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies were conducted in 10 psychotropic naive pediatric patients with OCD, 10 unaffected siblings of pediatric patients with OCD, and 10 healthy controls. VBM analysis was conducted using SPM2. Statistical comparisons were performed with the general linear model, implementing small volume random field corrections for a priori regions of interest (anterior cingulate cortex or ACC, striatum and thalamus). VBM analysis revealed significantly lower gray matter density in OCD patients compared to healthy in the left ACC and bilateral medial superior frontal gyrus (SFG). Furthermore, a small volume correction was used to identify a significantly greater gray matter density in the right putamen in OCD patients as compared to unaffected siblings of OCD patients. These findings in patients, siblings, and healthy controls, although preliminary, suggest the presence of gray matter structural differences between affected subjects and healthy controls as well as between affected subjects and individuals at risk for OCD.