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Статья посвящена положениям учения о преступном вреде в части исследования вреда, причиняемого личности. Личный преступный вред определен как нарушение охраняемых уголовным законом прав и свобод личности. Показано, что конкретное выражение этого преступного вреда зависит характера личных прав и свобод, на которые осуществляется посягательство. Преступный вред, причиняемый личности, обобщен на виды: физический, психический, иное существенное нарушение основных прав и свобод человека и имущественный вред. Уточнено понятие и рассмотрены виды физического преступного вреда. Обращено внимание на то, что физический вред ограничен вредом, причиняемым организму и (или) телу человека. Предложено выделять следующие виды физического вреда: смерть, вред здоровью, нарушение телесной неприкосновенности и утрата физической свободы человека. Отражены понятие и особенности описания смерти как вида физического вреда в уголовном законе. Раскрыты признаки и виды вреда здоровью человека. В частности, выявлено, что такой вред состоит в умалении физиологического состояния человека относительно того уровня, который имел место до возникновения патологии и выражается в телесном повреждении (травме), заболевании или патологическом состоянии. Продемонстрировано многообразие способов описания вреда здоровью человека в УК РФ. Уделено внимание преступному результату побоев и истязания. Обосновано, что данные насильственные преступления влекут вред не здоровью, а телесной неприкосновенности человека. Определено, что физический вред в виде утраты свободы заключается в нарушении свободы движений и (или) передвижения в пространстве. Важнейшая особенность такого вреда, которая должна быть учтена в УК РФ, состоит в том, что степень тяжести этого вреда зависит от длительности удержания человека. Предложены рекомендации по совершенствованию описания отдельных видов личного физического вреда в уголовном законе.

Научное исследование посвящено комплексному анализу толкования юридических текстов, имеющих свою специфику по сравнению с обыденными, содержащими специальную юридическую терминологию и изложенными по правилам юридической техники. Нормы права, содержащиеся в нормативных правовых актах, подлежат толкованию исключительно в системе с другими нормами права и с учетом принципов юридической науки. Актуальность темы исследования обусловлена тем, что правовые нормы регулируют возникающие в обществе отношения и адресованы прежде всего людям. В связи с развитием общественных отношений они нуждаются в точном правовом регулировании, создании условий для единообразного правоприменения. Толкование – процесс мыслительной деятельности, направленный на уяснение смысла правовых норм. Правильное и однозначное толкование норм права позволит не только их изучить, понять их подлинный смысл, но и в целом проникнуться духом права, его основополагающими принципами. В работе исследуется понятие толкования правовых норм, виды и методы толкования, а также выявляются особенности толкования органом высшей конституционной юстиции Конституционным Судом Российской Федерации, отмечается его важная роль в обеспечении единообразия правоприменения. Наличие дефектов правовых актов требует актуализировать вопрос о совершенствовании деятельности, позволяющей исправить, восполнить положения нормативных правовых актов. В статье анализируются подходы к толкованию норм права, выявляются проблемы толкования. По итогам проведенного исследования делается вывод о необходимости правильного толкования правовых норм. В этих целях автором предлагается использование разных способов толкования в комплексе.

Статья посвящена исследованию существующих подходов к определению понятий «сиротство», «социальное сиротство», «социальный сирота» в федеральных и региональных нормативных правовых актах. Выявлен существующий в российском законодательстве пробел – отсутствие единообразного определения понятия «социальное сиротство». Определено, что применяемые в нормативных правовых актах понятийно-категориальные подходы не обладают универсальностью, что может привести к нарушениям прав и законных интересов соответствующих субъектов. Исследованы имеющиеся подходы к определению смежных понятий, такие как: «дети-сироты», «дети, оставшиеся без попечения родителей», «дети, оказавшиеся в трудной жизненной ситуации», и установлены терминологические границы между ними и понятием «социальное сиротство». Рекомендовано закрепить в отечественных официальных актах единое определение понятий «социальное сиротство» и «социальный сирота». В целях виктимологической защиты и виктимологической профилактики несовершеннолетних, как наименее защищенной категории граждан, предложено авторское определение термина «социальное сиротство» и социальная дифференциация социальных сирот.

Статья посвящена рассмотрению теоретической характеристики субъектов уголовного права. Отмечено, что сбалансированность полноценной теории субъектов уголовного права является важным условием развития уголовно-правовой науки и правоприменительной практики. Рассмотрев теоретико-правовую характеристику понятия «лицо в уголовном праве», автор сформулировал несколько базовых тезисов. В частности: 1) субъектами уголовного права следует признавать государство (как федеральное образование) и лиц, к которым обращены уголовно-правовые запреты, вне зависимости от способности последних осознавать содержание запретов и нести ответственность за их нарушение; 2) субъекты уголовного права обладают равновеликим правовым статусом, в силу чего предпосылкой их полноценного участия в правовых отношениях выступает установление соразмерных возможностей по отстаиванию собственных интересов; 3) к категории лиц как субъектов, противостоящих государству в сфере уголовного права, относится, прежде всего, физическое лицо (человек) с неисключенной возможностью признания субъектом уголовного права юридических лиц.

В статье исследуется правовой аспект понятия «активное долголетие». Подчеркивается актуальность темы, обусловленной увеличением продолжительности жизни, демографическим старением населения в России, что влечет за собой изменение социальной-экономической структуры современного российского общества. На сегодняшний день лица старшего возраста представляют собой значительную социально-возрастную группу в Российской Федерации. Это вызывает потребность формирования национальной системы нормативных правовых актов, направленной на реализацию концепции активного долголетия. Для достижения этой цели наиболее важно решить вопросы о необходимости легального закрепления понятия «активное долголетие» и определении субъектного состава концепции активного долголетия. Для этого проводится анализ международных актов о правах человека, концепции активного старения. На примере российских нормативных актов рассматривается субъектный состав, на который распространяется концепция активного долголетия. Для сравнения приводятся примеры национальных концепций активного долголетия в некоторых зарубежных странах. Делается вывод о том, что на сегодняшний день отсутствует легальное определение понятия активного долголетия в российских нормативных правовых актах, что является препятствием эффективного правового регулирования по улучшению уровня и условий жизни граждан старшего возраста. Авторы отмечают, что понятие «активное долголетие» целесообразно определять, акцентируя внимание на качестве жизни граждан старшего возраста. Такой подход будет способствовать объективной оценке условий жизнедеятельности рассматриваемой группы лиц и оптимизации правового регулирования отношений по реализации действий в интересах граждан старшего поколения (для удовлетворения материальных и духовных потребностей названных лиц).

Статья посвящена исследованию юридической терминологии в аспектах юриспруденции и лингвистики. В работе акцентировано внимание на обязательном рассмотрении слова, используемого в качестве юридического термина, с точки зрения его лексико-синтаксических связей и лексического значения. Актуальность исследования обусловлена необходимостью четкого разграничения смежных понятий, являющихся в юриспруденции ключевыми: «обвиняемый», «подсудимый», «осужденный», «оправданный». Дается характеристика данных терминов в соответствии с классификацией, в основе которой лежит комплексный подход. Предпринимается попытка соотношения названных терминов со словами-обозначениями, употребляемыми в неофициальной речи юристов. Авторы приходят к выводу о том, что непрофессиональное использование сложившихся терминов и их определений в реальных ситуациях уголовного судопроизводства может повлечь посягательства на честь и достоинство человека, нарушение его прав как гражданина, а также подвергнуть сомнению принцип презумпции невиновности. Кроме того, по мнению авторов, процесс дальнейшей гуманизации уголовного законодательства затруднен отсутствием новых процессуальных понятий и терминов.

Настоящая статья посвящена исследованию актуальных детерминант экстремистской преступности, проявляющейся в России и Беларуси. Авторы отмечают, что данные официальной статистики свидетельствуют о тенденции к увеличению числа выявляемых и регистрируемых преступлений экстремистской направленности, совершаемых на территории названных государств. Прирост названного вида преступности связан со многими факторами, в том числе политического, экономического, культурного характера. Современная практика показывает, что экстремистские идеи находят свое отражение в обществе различных государств, и поскольку данное явление характеризуется определенными чертами и особенностями, в рамках настоящего исследования авторы обратили внимание на современный детерминационный комплекс факторов, порождающих экстремизм. При этом изучение причин и условий, способствующих проявлению экстремизма в обществе, необходимо не само по себе, а для того, чтобы выработать эффективные меры профилактики данного негативного явления. И одним из методов противодействия экстремистской деятельности является закрепление в законодательстве того или иного государства норм административной и уголовной ответственности за экстремизм.

Статья посвящена рассмотрению вопроса методологии решения экспертной задачи по установлению признаков составления текста при участии иного лица в рамках автороведческой диагностики. На примере из экспертной практики изложен алгоритм исследования, включающий последовательные этапы аналитического исследования предоставленного на экспертизу текста, сравнительного исследования с текстами-образцами, анализ и оценку полученных результатов.

Экономическая деятельность является систематизирующей категорией российского уголовного права и предметом изучения в различных науках гуманитарного цикла. В настоящей статье автор аргументирует суждение о необходимости выделения и осмысления автономной уголовно-правовой категории «объект уголовно-правовой охраны», являющейся базовым элементом формирования эффективного уголовного закона и отличающейся по объему и содержанию от юридической конструкции объекта преступления. На основе междисциплинарного подхода и анализа теоретических положений, сформированных в экономической теории, социологии, философии, правовых науках выделены признаки экономической деятельности (экономическая мотивация, активный и многосубъектный характер), являющиеся социальным основанием для формирования концепции уголовно-правовой охраны экономической деятельности. Экономическая деятельность как объект уголовно-правовой охраны рассмотрена как единое структурируемое общественное отношение (фактический уровень исследования) и как объект первичного правового регулирования позитивными отраслями права (нормативный уровень исследования). Подобный методологический прием обеспечивает достоверность выводов и позволяет соблюдать фундаментальное требование системности правового регулирования аналогичных общественных отношений различными отраслями права.

В данной статье рассматривается принадлежность речевых средств к лингвистическим категориям при производстве лингвистической экспертизы по материалам террористической направленности (ответственность за которые предусмотрена статьей 205.2 Уголовного кодека РФ) в целях закрепления в науке доминирующего подхода к данному вопросу, а также для повышения эффективности работы эксперта-лингвиста и совершенствования процедуры соотношения выводов эксперта с составом преступлений. В статье вводятся понятия «правовой компонент», «лингвистический компонент», предлагаемые для рассмотрения в рамках лингвоэкспертологии. Статья содержит результаты анализа обзора существующих в науке подходов к определению модальности, соотношению модальности и оценки, к методической стороне вопроса поиска лингвистических компонентов в тексте, а также результат анализа обзора статьей, связанных с лингвистической экспертизой (в том числе по материалами террористической/экстремистской направленности) за последние десять лет. В исследовательской части статьи осуществляется соотнесение «правовых компонентов», зафиксированных в ст. 205.2 УК РФ, и «лингвистических компонентов», отражающих категориальную принадлежность значения. Также в статье приводится модель вопросов, которые ставятся перед экспертом-лингвистом в лингвистической судебной экспертизе по материалам террористической направленности. Помимо того, статья содержит перечень методов лингвистического анализа, необходимых для применения при поиске средств выражения модальности, в ней приведены примеры средств выражения отмеченных видов модальности. Также в статье обозначена перспектива разработки подробного алгоритма анализа наиболее часто встречающихся объектов лингвистической экспертизы с применением указанных методов.

Статья посвящена определению семантических границ юридических понятий «ненависть», «вражда», «человеческое достоинство», их интерпретации в контексте судебной лингвистической экспертизы, а также описанию речевых действий, которые могут быть квалифицированы как возбуждение ненависти либо вражды и унижение человеческого достоинства. Актуальность данного исследования определяется необходимостью, во-первых, конкретизировать правовое определение указанных выше понятий, которые хотя и закреплены в законодательных актах, но остаются весьма размытыми; во-вторых, обозначить речевые действия, направленные на возбуждение ненависти или вражды, а также унижение человеческого достоинства, которые могут попадать под правовое регулирование. Интерпретация указанных понятий неоднозначна как в лингвистическом, так и в правовом понимании, что не дает возможности лингвисту дать объективную оценку тексту и определить те речевые действия, которые могут быть направлены на возбуждение ненависти, вражды и на унижение человеческого достоинства. Материалом исследования стали понятия «ненависть», «вражда», «человеческое достоинство», которые входят в содержание ст. 20.3.1 КоАП РФ и ст. 282 УК РФ. В работе использованы методы формально-юридического анализа, описания, сопоставления, семантического анализа. Результаты данного исследования связаны с разграничением юридического задания, которое может быть дано лингвистам-экспертам, и компетенции лингвиста-эксперта, которая не просто должна быть ограничена описанием определенных лингвистических особенностей речевого произведения, представленного на исследование, но и могла бы дать возможность правоприменителю установить наличие или отсутствие состава преступления по категории дел, связанных с возбуждением ненависти или вражды, и также унижением человеческого достоинства.

В статье рассматривается применение специальных способов общения при проведении допроса потерпевших: рефлексивное и эмпатийное. Приводится определение данных способов общения. Обосновывается необходимость применения данных видов делового общения во время проведения допроса потерпевших. Выделяются типы потерпевших от преступления. Исследуются психологические закономерности потерпевших, влияющие на расследование преступлений. Обосновывается значение рефлексивного и эмпатийного общения для передачи достоверных показаний.

Цель настоящего исследования – выявление и демонстрация базовых причин и факторов преступности в дореволюционной Сибири в текстах политико-правовой доктрины Н. М. Ядринцева. Работа проводилась на основании текстологического инструментария и герменевтической методологии. Объектом аналитики выступили опубликованные произведения просветителя, в которых представлен политико-правовой нарратив роста преступных девиаций в сибирском регионе периода империи. Авторами акцентируется, что тексты произведений просветителя были наполнены глубокой юридико-философской и социально-правовой рефлексией о причинах и состоянии преступлений ссыльных, каторжан и беглых бродяг в России и Сибири. В статье показано, что одним из основных криминогенных факторов лидер движения сибирских областников рассматривал не просто рост ссыльнопоселенцев, а еще не эффективные и неразборчивые трансформации в уголовном законодательстве. Также высвобождение части правонарушителей от наказания в виде лишения свободы, как считал Н. М. Ядринцев, неотвратимо порождало рост контингента ссыльных. Вместе с ростом численности уголовной и политической ссылки усложнялись и условия сыска за беглыми ссыльными. Все это крайне негативно отражалось на криминогенной ситуации в регионе. В ходе исследования установлено, что согласно политико-правовому наследию мыслителя, негативное влияние на причины преступности в дореволюционной Сибири оказали рост бродячего населения, многочисленная ссылка на поселение, каторжный фактор и просчеты в государственной пенитенциарной политике.

Исследовательское внимание в статье сосредоточено на функционировании словосочетания «одинокая мать» в составе юридического языка. Грамотное оформление и прочтение юридического текста предполагают соответствие смысла отдельного фрагмента смыслу текста в целом, отсутствие разночтений используемой специальной лексики. Юридический язык представлен определенными компонентами высказываний, обладающими разной степенью сложности. Для обозначения женщины, в одиночку воспитывающей ребенка, в отечественном законодательстве традиционно используется словосочетание «одинокая мать». В недавнем прошлом одинокой матерью признавалась женщина, в первую очередь не состоящая в браке, не проживающая и не ведущая совместного хозяйства с отцом ребенка. В настоящее время семантика данного словосочетания изменилась. Вместе с тем в отраслевом законодательстве параллельно используется синонимичная лексика, терминологические характеристики словосочетания «одинокая мать» не вполне сформированы, а его использование в условиях отсутствия легальной дефиниции иногда приводит к семантическим аберрациям и актуализации вопроса о введении в законодательную и правоприменительную практику достаточно дискуссионной лексики.

The language contact between Basque and Spanish in the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC) gives rise to the production of specific linguistic features such as non-standard gender agreement (N-SGA). N-SGA in BAC Spanish has been traditionally attributed to elder Basque native speakers without much access to education, but this affirmation is not based on any empirical study. In addition, although several scholars have explored N-SGA in other language contact situations, there is no agreement on the linguistic factors that favor this production. Taking this knowledge gap as the point of departure, the present study explores 73 individual sociolinguistic interviews by a diverse population from the BAC in order to delimit (i) the community that produces N-SGA and (ii) the linguistic factors that condition it. Results follow Basterretxea Santiso’s (2022, “A triangulation study on gender agreement in Spanish by native Basque speakers.” Revista Española de Lingüística (RSEL) 52(1): 7–37) suggestion that N-SGA in BAC Spanish is present across generations: it is a well-established feature present in BAC Spanish as a result of language contact. Results also support the existence of a local gender agreement system that depends on the gender of the controller, inflectional form, number, distance, and whether the target is a clitic or adjective.

To clarify possible etymological connections of the Tatar lexeme ik ‘edge, end’ and identify diachronic patterns in synchrony, the author considers a series of lexemes that are similar in semantic and phonetic characteristics (paired ik-şik ‘end and edge’, ǯek ‘seam, joint’, iŋ (*egin) ‘shoulder’, ǯiŋ ‘sleeve’, etc.), designating them as “phonetic-semantic convergences” and combining them into a “phonetic-semantic group” (FSG). There are no special works studying the origin, reasons for the origin of such groups of lexemes, types of relationships between their elements. FSG research could contribute to the analysis of etymologically complex lexemes and the identification of systemic connections in vocabulary, which determines the relevance of work on this issue. In order to study the question of the existence of FSG in other differently structured languages, material from the Basque language was used (lexemes hegi ‘edge, border’, hegal ‘wing, edge’, magal ‘wing, slope’, etc.). Using material from the etymological and other dictionaries of the Tatar, Bashkir, Russian, Basque, Turkic, Altai languages, the basics of the VKtype and part of the derivations of the CVKstructure with initial / j-/ǯ-, m-, ş-, t-/ in Tatar and anlaut / h-, m-/ - in Basque languages. The hypothesis is put forward that phonetic and semantic convergences in the Tatar language may represent related bases established in the form of independent lexemes. Because of the application of a set of methods combining techniques of comparative historical and comparative typological analysis, the author concludes that in the evolution of phonetic and semantic groups, in addition to semantic derivations, phonetic methods of word formation played an essential role. These are Turkic ablaut, synharmonic parallelism (palatalization of the base), reduplication, which are relics of the pre-agglutinative period of the development of the Turkic languages.

The beginning of the twentieth century in the Russian Empire is a period of growth of national consciousness. As a result, peoples of different nationalities are forming new views on education, defining their national identity, studying the history of their people and preserving traditions. An important result of such changes was the emergence of a national periodical press. The first organs of the Tatar-language Arabographic periodical press, published in the interrevolutionary period of 1905-1917, played an important role in the formation and further development of the Tatar periodical press and Tatar journalism. The first Tatar newspapers formed the genre, compositional, lexical, grammatical and stylistic structure of the modern Tatar periodical press. This determines the relevance of this scientific article. The purpose of this study is to identify the compositional and linguistic-stylistic characteristics of travel essays as the most popular artistic and journalistic genre found in the texts of Tatar newspapers of the early twentieth century. The research material was the texts of the Tatar newspapers Borkhane Tarakki (1906-1911) and Vakyt (1906-1918). In the course of the work, the descriptive and analytical method was used, as well as the method of continuous sampling of factual material. As a result of the research, it was revealed that the texts of travel essays are a description of the events that the author witnessed. The studied texts are characterized by their documentary and artistic nature. On the one hand, this type of text construction is expressed in journalistic character and the presence of compositional and lexicogrammatical structures, and on the other hand, in the active functioning of means of artistic expression.

The article examines the derived adverbs of the Russian and Tatar languages, namely the specifics of their structure, semantics and ways of expressing communicative and pragmatic meanings. The purpose of the work is to identify and describe the ethnocultural component in the derivational-semantic space of adverbial words of typologically distant languages. The innovation of the work consists in the fact that for the first time an attempt was made to describe adverbial derivatives in an ethnolinguistic aspect, which allows interpreting the morphosemantic structure of a word as a linguistic and cultural phenomenon, namely, to characterize universal and differential features that form the linguistic picture of the world of each ethnic group. The study states that the word-formation structure of derived adverbs can demonstrate the semantic organization of the word and the corresponding concept, namely, it indicates due to which properties and signs any action or state is determined in the speaker’s mind. A comparative analysis of adverbial derivation in the Russian and Tatar languages allowed us to establish not only similarities and differences in the use of motivational features within the same denotative space, but also to identify the most significant, preferred mental and cultural meanings for this linguistic collective. Special attention is paid to the facts of interlanguage word-formation lacunarity and the specifics of the internal form of derived adverbs, which makes it possible to reveal cognitive mechanisms in the linguistic modeling of the surrounding reality.

This article presents a semantic-syntactic analysis of prepositions / postpositions and conjunctions of the Tatar and Russian languages with the semantics of precedence. The purpose of the study is to determine the peculiarities of the functioning of prepositions/postpositions and conjunctions of differently structured languages involved in the representation of the category of precedence. The work defines a range of prepositions and conjunctions of temporal semantics that realize the meaning under study. The scientific novelty is that the dominant functions of preposition/postposition or conjunction have been identified as non-verbal means of expressing temporality, in particular, the meaning of precedence, in determining the temporal meaning of a statement. The results obtained showed that in both languages the potential of representation by prepositions / postpositions and precedent conjunctions is determined by their compatibility. In both languages, postpositions / prepositions and postpositional words are characterized by high frequency functioning. In both languages, there is a preference for expressing precedence towards the evening time of day, which is logically understandable. The Tatar language also contains postpositional words. The semantics of precedence in time correlates with the semantics of precedence in space, the third additional meaning is proportionality, comparison in size. In the Russian language, prepositions are polysemantic and have an extremely high frequency of functioning, that is, the semantics of precedence is only one of the meanings. They often realize the meaning of the degree of manifestation and many others. In both languages, the semantics of precedence in complex sentences is realized by conjunctive expressions, including postpositions and prepositions of the same semantics. In the Tatar language there are subordinate and welded clauses, but in the Russian language only subordinate clauses are presented.

The study is devoted to new phenomena in Tatar prose in recent years. Based on the material of the review and analysis of the iconic works of modern Tatar writers, it is established that one of the main patterns of development of Tatar literature is synthetism. It manifests itself in the combination of various stylistic principles in a single structure of the work. An attempt is made to consider the features of synthetism in Tatar literature in stylistic and genre aspects. In particular, in modern Tatar prose, dystopia, by providing a platform for a stylistic reunion of the past and the present or the present and the future, allows writers to search for both universal and national values that form the basis of spirituality. They imagine love and devotion between father and children; historical memory, etc. The combination of a biographical text with a lyric-romantic love story or a realistic one with a philosophical one, which are also common in prose in recent years, testifies Key words: Tatar prose, synthetism, novel, dystopia, novel, short story Article history: received 14.05.2024; accepted 19.06.2024.

The Karatai are an ethnographic group of Mordvins, historically living in the KamskoUstinsky district of Tatarstan, whose native language is Tatar. The centuries-old history of this local group is an example of active interethnic interaction in the Volga region. Various aspects of history, material and spiritual culture, and the Karatai language are considered in ethnographic and dialectological literature. Among them are those analyzing hypotheses of the origin of the Karatai, taking into account the obvious Mishar vocabulary of their language; studying the modern area of settlement; features of self-identification. Special attention is paid to the materials of the Mordovian ethnographic expedition, which studied the life and traditions of the Karatai in the 1950s under the guidance of the famous scientist V.N. Belitzer.

The study examines the problem of the genesis of Russian-language literature in the context of the interaction between Russian and national literatures of the former Soviet Union. New research by scientists on the study of regional literatures was used. The concept of strata and culturalhistorical nests is used as a theoretical basis. The dynamics and direction of development of Russianlanguage literature in Tatarstan are shown. The significance of cultural and historical nests in the process of development of national literatures is revealed.

The article considers the “genre memory” as a theoretical notion on the material of elegy established in Russian literature in the 2nd half of the 20th - 21st centuries (A. Dragomoschenko, B. Popov, S. Gandlevsky) and in the works of modern Tatar poets F. Safin, G. Morat, R. Zaidulla. The study is aimed at considering the elegiac poetry in national literature in the context of “genre memory”. The author concludes that the appeal to multilingual elegy provides an opportunity to examine the genre category of “memory” not only through the achievements of historical poetics, but also in the scientific discourse of comparative studies, in particular comparative poetics. It is stated that the elegy in the lyrics of A. Dragomoschenko and B. Popov loses its genre identity and acquires an ironic beginning. In Dragomoshchenko’s “Elegy the Second in a Row,” changes in poetics are marked by going beyond the usual syllabic structure of the poem, turning to a completely different “logic of writing”. Special attention is paid to intertextuality. It is concluded that intertextuality in the elegiac poetry of modern Tatar authors has nuances in contrast to the attention to the “foreign” word that has developed in Russian literature. An appeal to the “alien” texts in elegies by F. Safin, R. Zaidulla, G. Morat does not lead to irony, but on the contrary, it takes the reader back to the traditional images of national poetry and folklore, strengthens the “Tatar sound” in the genre, and highlights features of originality (for instance, in the elegy of G. Morat there are images of Sak and Sok, in the poem by F. Safin Sabantui holiday is mentioned). On the other hand, this technique is a transformation factor of the “memory” elegiac genre, which manifests itself in its gradual convergence with other forms and discourses in literature.

The paper raises the issues of the commonality of the spiritual chants of the Tatars and Turks - мunajats and ilahi. These problems are considered in the context of the religious musical and poetic traditions of the two Turkic peoples. The relevance of the study of this issue is due to the need to study Tatar culture as an integral part of Islamic civilization. The study of the general and local features of the existence of these genres helps to trace the continuity and evolution of traditions in different historical and cultural conditions. This study for the first time examines aspects related to understanding the place and role of ilahi and munajats in the spiritual culture of Turks and Tatars, identifying common features in the existence of these genres. The study was conducted on the basis of a comparative historical and comparative method.The article traces the parallels between the Turkish ilahi and the munajats of the Tatars, which are determined through a symbolic understanding of the divine, prayer and love for God through their expression through musical and poetic means, functions, themes, plots, forms and features of existence. The combination of common features makes it possible to further compare these genres both from the perspective of the common traditions of the spiritual culture of the two Turkic peoples, and to identify their local features.

Two groups of Tatars have historically been settled in the eastern regions of the Ryazan Region - Kasimov Tatars and Mishari Tatars, with a total population of 3,071 people (as of 2021). These groups, while maintaining a common Tatar identity, close contacts (and family and marriage ties) have significant differences in ethnogenesis, traditional life, and especially in vocabulary. Most of the Kasimov Tatars are now Russian-speaking, while this ethnographic group is characterized by its archaic dialect, which differs markedly from the Mishar dialect found in neighboring Kasimov districts. Our in-depth interviews with Kasimov Tatars show that they perceive their dialect as an important factor of ethnoidentity, full or partial possession of it is noted as a sign of an indigenous inhabitant of the Tatar settlement of the city or local villages founded back in the era of the Kasimov Khanate. Local vocabulary is also used in ritual practices, becoming an integral part of religious everyday life. The Kasimov Tatars are alarmed by the transfer of vocabulary to young people, teaching them. Within the framework of the urban Tatar cultural center, it is only possible to study in the literary language, which the Kasimov Tatars perceive poorly. At the same time, thanks to the joint activities of community activists and researchers from Moscow and Tatarstan, it became possible to fix vocabulary with the possibility of preparing a dictionary of the dialect and further developments in its teaching. The article also examines the significance of the study of the Kasimov dialect of the Tatar language, conducted by the outstanding Kazan dialectologist, researcher and researcher L.T. Makhmutova in her 1952 dissertation. The article attempts to analyze the role of the dialect as a factor of the ethno-confessional identity of a local group of Tatars, as well as the work of the community in fixing and teaching the dialect.

In the process of its development, the Tatar language has been in contact with the Arabic language for many centuries and, to one degree or another, has been influenced by it. The result of all this was a fairly large number of borrowings, which, to a certain extent, have long been rooted in the vocabulary of the Tatar language and are not perceived even by the common man in the street as alien. At present, we can say with confidence that in lexical and semantic terms they have been studied thoroughly. At the same time, Arabic-Tatar language contacts, which largely contributed to the formation of the indicated genetic layer of the Tatar language, are still awaiting their scientific understanding in the sociolinguistic aspect. This determines the relevance of this work. Its goal is to study the cultural and historical factors that contributed to the penetration of the Arabic language into the Tatar linguistic area, the social environment of its existence and areas of application in Tatar society in a diachronic aspect. The material used was works on the history of the Tatar people, Tatar literature and the Tatar literary language. In the process of their analysis, methods of sociolinguistic reconstruction and sociolinguistic interpretation were applied. As a result of the study, it was revealed that the formation and development of Arabic-Tatar language contacts was largely facilitated by factors of a religious nature, namely the adoption and practice of Islam by the ancestors of the Tatars. Next, the boundaries of the social environment and spheres of application of the Arabic language in Tatar society were determined. Historically, the first was formed within the community of clergy, scientists and students of religious educational institutions, and the second were religion, education, science and fiction. According to the author, it was within their framework that centuries-old ArabTatar language contacts took place.

The article discusses the issues of mutual influence of European and Asian artistic traditions important for the formation and development of the Tatar national fine art on the example of the work of its founder Baki Idrisovich Urmanche (1897-1990). Ways and means of overcoming the religious ban on the depiction of man and animals are revealed. The religious ban strictly observed by some Muslim peoples of Russia, including the Tatars, restricted the development of their artistic culture. Russian avant-garde is noted for its role in understanding the importance of Oriental artistic traditions for the development of Russian art in general, for B.I. Urmanche and Tatar art in particular. The author analyzes several graphic series created by B.I. Urmanche mainly in the last Kazan period of life (1958-1990), representing interpretations of landscape, Tatar ornament, theatrical masks, illustrations to the works of outstanding Tatar writers and poets of the early twentieth century. (G. Tukai, Deardmand). The author shows how B.I. Urmanche expresses his artistic individuality in graphics, searches for the national character of art, combines Western European visual traditions, techniques of Oriental miniature painting, Chinese Guohua painting, Arabic calligraphy and the ornamental system of Tatar decorative art.

The visual world of the modern Tatar theatre is a complex dynamic and self-developing system, which, on the one hand, reflects elements of traditional culture, folklore, rituals, and, on the other hand, various stylistic features of development of the theatre in general. Significant transformations are taking place that change certain features of the long-standing tradition. Stage managers and stage designers read classical and modern works in a new way, entering into a complex dialogue with the authors. Due to the active appeal to the achievements of modern culture and other arts, a kind of renewal of the theatre is taking place. Despite preservation of stable forms and elements of the Tatar culture, the traditions of the “interior theater”, generalized metaphorical motifs prevail in the productions that transfer the place of action to the present. This technique is used in the theater to sharpen and actualize the theme of the play, to strengthen the role of the viewer as an interpreter of what he saw. In search of ways of a new theatrical language modern artists use the aesthetic principles of the Tatar decorative and applied art and the poetics of folk games, cinematography, pop art, etc. in line with the postmodern game with traditions. The article analyzes the stage design of the performances of the beginning of the new century under the direction of the artistic director F. Bikchantayeva in tandem with modern stage designers (S. Skomorokhov, B. Ibragimov, etc.).

The purpose of this study is to identify ethnopoetic markers in a translingual literary text. A translingual text is a text created by an author in a language that is not his or her native language and that transmits fragments of the author’s original culture. By ethnopoetic markers we mean such elements of the text that 1) are transferred into the fabric of the Russian-language text and have an exophonic sound, therefore, are semantically lacunary for the reader and require expansion; 2) are neutral from the point of view of the translator language, but reproduce foreign images of the world. The material for the study was selected poems by the Tatar poetess Albina Absalyamova. In the course of the work, it was possible to establish that the category of translingual text as a scientific problem is closely intertwined with the epistemological fields of ethnoand geopoetics.

The study is devoted to the consideration of the existence of mortality in the works of contemporary Russian-speaking Tatar writers (Salavat Yuzeev, Rustem Sabirov, Shamil Idiatullin, Albina Nurislamova, Guzel Yakhina), on the one hand, influencing the macropoetics of works, contributing to the complication of compositional structures, on the other hand, reflected in micropoetics (complexes of motives that actualize the thanatological code, lexical units expressing anti-vital reflection, the living-dead dichotomy). The mortal dimension is associated with the poetics and aesthetics of magical realism, the features and symptoms of which are found in the works of these authors. Particular emphasis in the article is placed on the interpretation of death in the works of the German art critic Franz Roh, who substantiated the category of anti-vitality as fundamental to magical realism. The poetics of death is associated with the existential orientation of the works. Conclusions are drawn that mortality is one of the main artistic constants in the works of these authors, which contributes to the consideration of the traditions of magical realism in their work.

The work of one of the outstanding prose writers of the 20st century becomes the object of study by many scientists in various aspects. Such close attention to his work is due to the fact that in the history of Tatar literature A. Yeniki was one of the first writers in whose works the national principle clearly manifested itself, despite the dominance of the socialist realist canon, which equalizes national literatures. The purpose of our work is to study the national in the works of the Tatar writer. The concept of “national image of the world,” introduced by G.D. Gachev, is used as a tool for analyzing and identifying the national in the works of A. Yeniki. The work identifies the levels at which the actualization of the features of the national image of the world in the works of the Tatar writer takes place. The level of subjective organization allows us to establish that in the works of A. Yeniki, the consciousness of a person manifests itself, in whose value orientations the value of the national world, the family, the age-old traditions of national life acts as absolute and unconditional. The next level presented in the works is formed due to the unique connection of images, where landscape motifs play a particularly significant role. The writer creates landscapes in which extraordinary cordiality and sincerity are combined with warmth and skillful emotional decisions. In the works of A. Yeniki landscape is one of the main tools for creating an emotional tone that permeates all his works. The third level of actualization of the national features is character, which is based on the value of the family, as well as being determined by belonging to the native land, language, customs and traditions.

The process of formation of the Tatar theater was associated with both the formation of national drama and the development of Russian and foreign classics. The Tatar Theater turned to world drama from the first years of its existence. It was an important school of directing and acting, contributed to the expansion of cultural horizons, the formation of professional skills and artistic taste of the young Tatar theater figures. Depending on the nature of the era, the director's preferences and the characteristics of the troupe, the plays of foreign playwrights emphasized social sound, heroic or romantic beginnings, psychologism or the universal nature of human relations. And although the main emphasis in the Tatar theater has always been on national drama, plays by foreign classics have always been included in its repertoire. The article examines the peculiarities of the Tatar theater's reception of the legacy of Shakespeare Moliere and Schiller at different stages of its development.

The jinn as a mythological character, whose roots go back to the Muslim tradition, is widely spread in the culture of the peoples professing Islam, and does not lose its relevance to this day. This article examines the models of the relationship between jinn and humans in Turkish and Tatar culture in the aspect of the neighborhood category. Main tasks: to summarize the available representative material about jinn in Turkish and Tatar folklore, to compare a set of ideas about the main characteristics of the jinn in both cultures, to consider the practice of relationships between jinn and humans. As a result of the conducted research, it was revealed that the models of relationships between representatives of people and their invisible neighbors in Turkish and Tatar culture are largely based on similar semantic elements: jinns are omnipresent, easily violate borders and penetrate into the human world, harm people, which leads to the emergence of a system of prohibitions and ritual practices that echo sociocultural models of communication in society. However, the degree of regulation of behavior between djinn and humans has its own national specifics in each culture under consideration.

The relevance of the study is explained by the growing interest in the problems of translation from national languages in modern Russia. The level of translation depends primarily on the translator’s understanding of the cultural features of the nation the author belongs to. The research is based on Tatar poets’ poems of the late 20th - early 21st century and their translations into Russian. The study is aimed at determining the means of adequate conveying of the Tatar poets’ ethnic identity through different layers of the text (lexis, syntax, rhythmic organization, etc.). Different techniques of concretization of texts of original works in the process of inter-literary dialogue used by translators are described in the course of the conducted research. It is emphasized that the transformation of “alien” text into “foreign” in the process of translation is accompanied by an increase in the emotional background of the poems, which is generally related to the focus on the Russian-speaking reader, as well as with the stylistic peculiarities of the Russian language. First, identity is revealed, as a clash between two systems of poetic texts and in phenomena reflecting the contrast between them: semantic interference arising during perception of the original work, untranslatability. It is stated that in translations of bilingual poets, unlike translations of Russianspeaking authors, identity is not lost in the sign of memory, but acquires a new form in the signs of translating language.

South African English economic discourse remains underexplored despite its significance in shaping public perception and policy in the region. One of its critical understudied facets are euphemisms, which are heavily influenced by historical and social background and play a crucial role in moderating sensitive issues and managing communication across diverse societal norms. This study aims to fill this gap by identifying how euphemisms reflect and respond to South Africa’s socio-cultural setting. The study involved compiling a corpus of approximately 500,000 words sourced from speeches, interviews, and publications by South African specialists with subsequent identification of euphemisms. As a results, 338 euphemisms were found in the corpus. Through continuous sampling, the study then identified, categorized, and quantitatively assessed the socio-cultural aspects of euphemisms across various economic discussions. According to the study results, euphemism in South African English economic discourse correspond to five main thematic groups: Economic and Racial Inequality, Corporate Governance and Ethics, Impact of Migration, Healthcare Economics, and Influence of Globalization. Each thematic group demonstrates patterns of euphemisms occurrence that reflect intentional communication efforts to address or mask sensitive socio-economic issues. The study results posit that euphemisms emerge as a frequently leveraged linguistic device moderating South African English economic discourse. They reflect an adaptive response to South Africa’s socio-cultural setting where managing the multifaceted societal norms and historical sensitivities is imperative for effective communication and policy dissemination. The study argues for closer examination of the linguistic composition of South African English economic discourse. The findings contribute to the fields of sociolinguistics and intercultural communication as they expose how euphemisms function as a tool for managing complex socio-economic processes.

The study aims to explore the affiliation strategies and semiotic resources employed in digital feminist activism by Assault Police ( AP ) within Egypt’s #MeToo movement to construct the identity of sexual-violence victims/survivors (SVVSs). Using Martin and White’s appraisal and Zappavigna’s communing affiliation frameworks, the study investigates how affective positioning is discursively constructed, multimodally materialized and ambiently performed in digital discourses to combat sexual-violence. A qualitative analysis of 104 digital narratives on sexual-violence, encompassing cases of rape, sexual-assault and gender-based violence, reveals how AP fosters a sense of shared values and emotional and moral stances within digital feminist spaces. The results demonstrate how AP constructs the social semiotic identity of Egyptian SVVSs through the utilization of affective-discursive strategies that combine evaluative language, visual cues, digital elements and cultural references as affective instruments to (re)shape and negotiate value- and-feeling-centered affiliations. AP employs a range of evaluative couplings to position SVVS as a credible, subject worthy of empathy and support/justice. This affective stance challenges the gendered semiotic identities and inequalities that pervade the Egyptian context. Additionally, AP facilitates the formation of affiliative bonds of belonging or exclusion around SVVSs through the use of emotional appeals, moral evaluations, affective repetitions, coherent designs, colour schemes, community-centered hashtags and cultural symbols. This study contributes to the field of non-Western digital discourse analysis by offering a model of affect and affiliation from a multimodal perspective that focuses on the distinctive dynamics of Egypt’s feminist landscape and advocates for the inclusion of Arab women’s voices in the global discourse on sexual violence.

Numerous research studies addressing the differences in the use of lexical bundles in academic English by L1 and L2 writers interpret these differences as a deficiency or deviation that L2 writers need to eliminate. In this paper, we argue that this “deviant” use is not essentially the product of insufficient knowledge of English and/or Anglophone norms of academic writing but rather a transfer of the academic conventions of non-native speakers, rooted in their local culture. To confirm this hypothesis, we reviewed some previous studies and analyzed the use of lexical bundles in dissertations and research papers written in English by graduate and post-graduate students from Russia and Cameroon. The Russian corpus (38 texts of 576,186 words) was compiled from publicly available papers and dissertations written by bachelor’s and master’s students at the Higher School of Economics; the Cameroonian corpus (21 papers of 680,146 words) was compiled from papers contributed by students and teachers of the University of Yaoundé I. Using content analysis, corpus analysis, and the comparative method, we found that the most significant differences in the use of lexical bundles were connected with the peculiarities of the Russian and Cameroonian academic writing styles and cultural norms. Our study, therefore, reinforces the need to consider a more inclusive and culturally sensitive approach to the use of lexical bundles by L2 academic writers and take into account their diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. It will expand our knowledge of the linguistic features of different varieties of English and provide a deeper understanding of academic traditions in different languages and cultures.

Alaskan English (AE), or the regional variety of English used by Native Alaskans, is a unique yet largely underinvestigated phenomenon. Specific conditions in which Alaskan English and its distinct characteristics have emerged remain significantly understudied. The aim of this article is to explore these conditions as well as their long-term effects on the regional native language communities. The present work gives an overview of historical and sociolinguistic factors, the influence of which can be considered crucial as far as the variety and the language situation in Alaska are concerned. The article primarily focuses on the contacts between linguacultural communities during colonization, language policy in various periods of time, the English language acquisition in local educational context as well as language shift. Data from the personal narratives of Upper Kuskokwim Athabaskans is used in the study. Twenty six interviews were recorded during the fieldwork in the Inner Alaskan settlement Nikolai by one of the authors in 2001 and 2019. To describe the consequences of language shift and the process of “shaping” the local variety of English, comparative analysis of the interview transcripts has been employed. This method enabled us to compare and contrast the linguistic realities and the conditions of language acquisition between and within generations. Apart from that, some elements of discourse analysis have been used to reconstruct the sociolinguistic context behind the narrators’ statements. The obtained data sheds light on the sociolinguistic and cultural processes that took part in the region and their influence on the language situation and Alaskan English, and it lays basis for future research into the topic.

Collocations, words that habitually go together, such as “to book a meeting”, represent a peculiar linguistic phenomenon that has resulted in numerous studies by linguists and applied linguists, especially those in search of the mechanisms of words forming a companionship and of the effective techniques of teaching and learning collocations in another language. Recently, a new avenue of research has emerged with the aim of exploring metaphorical collocations viewed as “a type of a collocation in which the collocate is used figuratively and the base literally” (Patekar 2022), such as “a big day”. There are a number of challenges when it comes to identifying and analyzing metaphorical collocations. Hence, the aim of this paper is to outline the steps and issues in creating an inventory of metaphorical collocations in English. Using a corpus-driven approach, collocations with the noun “day” as the base were extracted automatically, and metaphorical collocations were identified and analyzed manually. The results highlight the challenges in identifying and analyzing metaphorical collocations and outline the steps in creating an inventory of metaphorical collocations. Furthermore, distinguishing collocations from free combinations on the one hand and idioms on the other remains an ongoing challenge in linguistics, which also applies to metaphorical collocations. This has several implications. Firstly, without a better corpus analysis tool, research is bound to rely on manual analysis with all its drawbacks. Secondly, creating an inventory has proven to be the first step in shedding light on metaphorical collocations. Thirdly, an inventory based on the most frequent nouns across different languages is the foundation for further cross-linguistic study of metaphorical collocations.

This paper presents a theory of audience-resistance and speaker-denial. The paper commences with the problem of definition, encompassing an analysis of the scope and nature of denial and resistance. The data for this study were primarily obtained from mainstream and social media postings in two languages: English and Arabic. The article primarily draws on discourse and socio-cognitive frameworks. The paper’s principal question is how and why Arab and English speakers may resist or deny a remark. Previous research on resistance to figurative language has focused predominantly on the rhetorical trope of metaphor and on what drives the English political and media elite to reject a metaphoric expression. However, this raises an important question that is rarely asked: how and why do members of the general public resist verbal metaphors, and what about other tropes such as hyperbole and metonymy, other languages such as Arabic, and other modalities such as images and art forms? The paper argues that the existing literature on meaning negotiation and/or human dialogic action and behavior is riddled with fundamental theoretical, methodological, and analytical flaws. The paper aims to fill in this gap and has significant implications both for conceptual metaphor theory and for (non-)deliberate language use.

Compound nouns, whether metaphorical or otherwise, are compact and image-evoking linguistic structures widely used in news headlines. However, a review of the relevant literature shows that they have not been examined in the context of news headlines in Arabic media. Hence, this study aims to identify the role of metaphoric and catchy noun compounds as powerful framing devices in Arabic news headlines, specifically within the context of the Israel-Gaza conflict. Drawing on Entman’s (1993) Framing Theory we analysed the corpus, comprising 350 news article headlines sourced from Arabic news agencies and identified compounds using Altakhaineh's (2019) criteria for compoundhood. The overall number of collected compounds amounted to 231 (196 endocentric and 35 exocentric). The study reveals a purposive use of both endocentric and, on occasions, exocentric noun compounds as catchy expressions and metaphors, showing how they influence the narrative surrounding the target conflict. The deliberate preference for endocentric compounds over exocentric ones in Arabic news headlines reinforces the importance of clarity and immediate comprehension in framing devices to ensure effective communication. Through the identification and analysis of ten frames, we argue that the use of compounds as framing devices in Arabic media coverage of the Israel-Gaza conflict reflects a distinctive perspective, constructing a reality that markedly diverges from the narrative often depicted in some Western media. This study contributes to the understanding of Arab media framing, emphasizing the role of compounds in creating compelling, compact, memorable, and emotionally charged representations of current events.

Poetic discourse, which engages the poetic function of language as a constitutive one, transforms the postulates of pragmatics of ordinary language. New poetic practices often represent a kind of pragmatic experiment: the effect of linguopragmatic parameters inherent in conventional communication is tested here on the borderline between the norm and the anomaly. The aim of this study is to identify the specific functionality of pragmatic markers in the condition of increased permeability between discourses and to explore the features of trans-discourse interaction of poetic language and colloquial speech in new media. The study is based on a corpus of poetic texts (3 million words), including Russian, English, and Italian subcorpora. It identified new communicative strategies of addressing and clusters of deictic, modal and discourse markers, grouped according to Jakobson’s communicative model (Jakobson 1975). The study identified qualitative differences between the frequency of use of several units in poetic discourse and in colloquial speech. We considered various pragmatic strategies, referring not only to individual units, but also clusters of deictic, modal, and discourse words, etc. We found that Italian and Russian poetry uses discourse markers more often than American poetry. Differences in linguistic structure also affect the specifics of a pragmatic experiment. Thus, in American poetry, a pragmatic experiment often activates the syntactic level; in Russian poetry, experiments with word formation and modality are more frequent; in Italian poetry, the pragmatic experiment is often combined with the structural-syntactic one: pragmatic markers form “clusters” or “chains”, when an increase in the density of use of units leads to an increase in the range of deviations from standard usage. The research based on the poetic corpus of texts contributes to the study of poetic discourse and corpus pragmatics.

There has long been a widespread belief that academic writing has to maintain a high degree of formality and impersonality. Despite this, it has been observed that there is a general tendency to use informal style in academic writing by writers from different disciplines. This informality manifests itself in the use of various linguistic devices that were previously observed only in spoken discourse or in informal communication. The aim of the study is to identify common informal features in English academic writing used by Arabic and British scholars and compare the level of informality used in English academic writing by representatives of the two lingua-cultures. The study adopts the corpus linguistics method. The one-million-word Arab Scholar Written English Corpus (ASAWEC) was compiled and analysed for informality features. The results were then compared to the British Academic Written English (BAWE) corpus. We focused on the use of informal features, such as broad references, initial conjunctions, first-person singular, second person pronouns, final preposition, listing expressions, split infinitive, and contractions. The results revealed a significant difference in the use of informality features in favour of the native speakers. The findings showed that Arabic scholars tend to use broad references and initial conjunctions, however, they rarely use contractions and split infinitives. Contrary to this, British scholars used the whole spectrum of informality features. The findings can provide insightful implications for researchers, journal editors and peer reviewers to account for informality levels in academic writing in different linguacultures. They may also be used in teaching English academic writing.

In contrast to the requirements for scientific accuracy, terms, particularly in the humanities, often reflect the specific socio-cultural context of their use and seemingly equivalent terms can have significant conceptual differences within multilingual scholarly and professional communities. One such term is native speaker , which is crucial to the English Language Teaching (ELT) academic discourse. The main objective of this study is to explore the structure and meaning of the concept underlying the term native speaker and its dynamic functioning in discourse to identify differences in their understanding. The material consisted of English and Russian-language research articles on ELT from 1970 to 2020. The study was conducted using a linguosynergetic approach, which considers discourse as a self-developing and self-organizing, nonlinear, open and unstable system. The methodology included three stages. First, the authors conducted an axiomatic analysis of the contexts in which the term native speaker is used. Then, they modeled the concept in different synchronous slices. Finally, they compared the data obtained. The results showed that the differences concern not only the periphery of the concepts, but also their very core. In Russian ELT discourse, the concept retains a relatively stable structure. This reflects the role of the native speaker in the educational process, as a learning model and a preferred teacher. In English ELT discourse, the term native speaker has acquired a negative connotation, and conceptually, it acts as an opponent to the term non-native speaker , forming a dual concept with it. The conclusions сan serve as a basis for further comparative studies on interlanguage terminological systems in the humanities field.

The article compares two representative approaches to the description of dependency syntax: Šmilauer’s syntax for Czech (1947) and Tesnière’s structural syntax focused on syntax in general (1959). Similarities and differences between the two leading representatives of modern syntax are the object of comparison. The degree of general knowledge of Tesnière’s approach in the Czech environment is considered in the works of Šmilauer before Tesnière’s most comprehensive work was published. Both authors use graphic means to capture the syntactic structure of a sentence, called stemmata by Tesnière. Both authors, however, differ in their conception of the central sentence pair of syntactic structure: subject and predicate. While Šmilauer considers the subject to be the basic source of agreement for the predicate, for Tesnière the subject is one of the members dependent on the verb (in the same vein as the objects or adverbials). This approach then led Tesnière to introduce the notion of verbal valency reflecting the necessary participants in the action expressed by the verb. Both authors also differ in their representation of the order of words in the graphic representation: Šmilauer respects the surface order of words in the sentence structure, while Tesnière mostly places the actants to the left of the governing verb and the circumstants to the right.