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Atmospheric energy transport is central to the cooling of primordial magma oceans. Theoretical studies of atmospheres on lava planets have assumed that convection is the only process involved in setting the atmospheric temperature structure. This significantly influences the ability for a magma ocean to cool. It has been suggested that convective stability in these atmospheres could preclude permanent magma oceans. We develop a new 1D radiative-convective model in order to investigate when the atmospheres overlying magma oceans are convectively stable. Using a coupled interior-atmosphere framework, we simulate the early evolution of two terrestrial-mass exoplanets: TRAPPIST-1 c and HD 63433 d. Our simulations suggest that the atmosphere of HD 63433 d exhibits deep isothermal layers which are convectively stable. However, it is able to maintain a permanent magma ocean and an atmosphere depleted in H2O. It is possible to maintain permanent magma oceans underneath atmospheres without convection. Absorption features of CO2 and SO2 within synthetic emission spectra are associated with mantle redox state, meaning that future observations of HD 63433 d may provide constraints on the geochemical properties of a magma ocean analogous with the early Earth. Simulations of TRAPPIST-1 c indicate that it is expected to have solidified within 100 Myr, outgassing a thick atmosphere in the process. Cool isothermal stratospheres generated by low molecular-weight atmospheres can mimic the emission of an atmosphere-less body. Future work should consider how atmospheric escape and chemistry modulates the lifetime of magma oceans, and the role of tidal heating in sustaining atmospheric convection, Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS

Recent James Webb Space Telescope observations of cool, rocky exoplanets reveal a probable lack of thick atmospheres, suggesting prevalent escape of the secondary atmospheres formed after losing primordial hydrogen. Yet, simulations indicate that hydrodynamic escape of secondary atmospheres, composed of nitrogen and carbon dioxide, requires intense fluxes of ionizing radiation (XUV) to overcome the effects of high molecular weight and efficient line cooling. This transonic outflow of hot, ionized metals (not hydrogen) presents a novel astrophysical regime ripe for exploration. We introduce an analytic framework to determine which planets retain or lose their atmospheres, positioning them on either side of the cosmic shoreline. We model the radial structure of escaping atmospheres as polytropic expansions - power-law relationships between density and temperature driven by local XUV heating. Our approach diagnoses line cooling with a three-level atom model and incorporates how ion-electron interactions reduce mean molecular weight. Crucially, hydrodynamic escape onsets for a threshold XUV flux dependent upon the atmosphere's gravitational binding. Ensuing escape rates either scale linearly with XUV flux when weakly ionized (energy-limited) or are controlled by a collisional-radiative thermostat when strongly ionized. Thus, airlessness is determined by whether the XUV flux surpasses the critical threshold during the star's active periods, accounting for expendable primordial hydrogen and revival by volcanism. We explore atmospheric escape from Young-Sun Mars and Earth, LHS-1140 b and c, and TRAPPIST-1 b. Our modeling characterizes the bottleneck of atmospheric loss on the occurrence of observable Earth-like habitats and offers analytic tools for future studies., Comment: Submitted to ApJ; comments welcome

Interactions between magma oceans and overlying atmospheres on young rocky planets leads to an evolving feedback of outgassing, greenhouse forcing, and mantle melt fraction. Previous studies have predominantly focused on the solidification of oxidized Earth-similar planets, but the diversity in mean density and irradiation observed in the low-mass exoplanet census motivate exploration of strongly varying geochemical scenarios. We aim to explore how variable redox properties alter the duration of magma ocean solidification, the equilibrium thermodynamic state, melt fraction of the mantle, and atmospheric composition. We develop a 1D coupled interior-atmosphere model that can simulate the time-evolution of lava planets. This is applied across a grid of fixed redox states, orbital separations, hydrogen endowments, and C/H ratios around a Sun-like star. The composition of these atmospheres is highly variable before and during solidification. The evolutionary path of an Earth-like planet at 1 AU ranges between permanent magma ocean states and solidification within 1 Myr. Recently solidified planets typically host H2O- or H2-dominated atmospheres in the absence of escape. Orbital separation is the primary factor determining magma ocean evolution, followed by the total hydrogen endowment, mantle oxygen fugacity, and finally the planet's C/H ratio. Collisional absorption by H2 induces a greenhouse effect which can prevent or stall magma ocean solidification. Through this effect, as well as the outgassing of other volatiles, geochemical properties exert significant control over the fate of magma oceans on rocky planets., Comment: Accepted for publication in JGR: Planets

With sizable volatile envelopes but smaller radii than the solar system ice giants, sub-Neptunes have been revealed as one of the most common types of planet in the galaxy. While the spectroscopic characterization of larger sub-Neptunes (2.5-4R$_\oplus$) has revealed hydrogen-dominated atmospheres, smaller sub-Neptunes (1.6--2.5R$_\oplus$) could either host thin, rapidly evaporating hydrogen-rich atmospheres or be stable metal-rich "water worlds" with high mean molecular weight atmospheres and a fundamentally different formation and evolutionary history. Here, we present the 0.6--2.8$\mu$m JWST NIRISS/SOSS transmission spectrum of GJ 9827 d, the smallest (1.98 R$_\oplus$) warm (T$_\mathrm{eq, A_B=0.3} \sim 620$K) sub-Neptune where atmospheric absorbers have been detected to date. Our two transit observations with NIRISS/SOSS, combined with the existing HST/WFC3 spectrum, enable us to break the clouds-metallicity degeneracy. We detect water in a highly metal-enriched "steam world" atmosphere (O/H of $\sim 4$ by mass and H$_2$O found to be the background gas with a volume mixing ratio of >31%). We further show that these results are robust to stellar contamination through the transit light source effect. We do not detect escaping metastable He, which, combined with previous nondetections of escaping He and H, supports the steam atmosphere scenario. In water-rich atmospheres, hydrogen loss driven by water photolysis happens predominantly in the ionized form which eludes observational constraints. We also detect several flares in the NIRISS/SOSS light-curves with far-UV energies of the order of 10$^{30}$ erg, highlighting the active nature of the star. Further atmospheric characterization of GJ 9827 d probing carbon or sulfur species could reveal the origin of its high metal enrichment., Comment: 37 pages, 18 figures, Accepted for publication in ApJL

Many planets have hydrogen-dominated atmospheres, including sub-Neptune exoplanets, recently formed planets with primordial atmospheres, and the Solar System's giant planets. Atmospheric convection behaves differently in hydrogen-rich atmospheres compared to higher mean molecular weight atmospheres due to compositional gradients of tracers. Previous 1D studies suggested that compositional gradients of condensing tracers in hydrogen-rich atmospheres can entirely shut-off convection when the tracer abundance exceeds a critical threshold, leading to the formation of radiative layers where the temperature decreases faster with height than in convective profiles. We use 3D convection-resolving simulations to determine if convection is inhibited in hydrogen-rich atmospheres when the tracer mixing ratio exceeds the critical threshold. Three simulation sets are performed with a water vapor tracer in hydrogen-rich atmospheres. First, we perform simulations initialized on saturated isothermal states and find that compositional gradients can destabilize isothermal states, leading to rapid convective mixing. Next, simulations initialized on adiabatic profiles show distinct, stable inhibition layers form when the water vapor tracer exceeds the critical threshold defined by previous studies. Within the inhibition layers, a small amount of energy is transported through condensation and re-evaporation, contrary to previous findings. The thermal profile slowly relaxes to a steep radiative state, but radiative relaxation timescales are long. Lastly, we show that superadiabatic temperature profiles can remain stable when the tracer abundance is greater than the critical amount. Our results suggest stable layers driven by condensation-induced convective inhibition form in hydrogen-rich atmospheres, including those of sub-Neptune exoplanets.

Many super-Earths are on very short orbits around their host star and, therefore, more likely to be tidally locked. Because this locking can lead to a strong contrast between the dayside and nightside surface temperatures, these super-Earths could exhibit mantle convection patterns and tectonics that could differ significantly from those observed in the present-day solar system. The presence of an atmosphere, however, would allow transport of heat from the dayside towards the nightside and thereby reduce the surface temperature contrast between the two hemispheres. On rocky planets, atmospheric and geodynamic regimes are closely linked, which directly connects the question of atmospheric thickness to the potential interior dynamics of the planet. Here, we study the interior dynamics of super-Earth GJ 486b ($R=1.34$ $R_{\oplus}$, $M=3.0$ $M_{\oplus}$, T$_\mathrm{eq}\approx700$ K), which is one of the most suitable M-dwarf super-Earth candidates for retaining an atmosphere produced by degassing from the mantle and magma ocean. We investigate how the geodynamic regime of GJ 486b is influenced by different surface temperature contrasts by varying possible atmospheric circulation regimes. We also investigate how the strength of the lithosphere affects the convection pattern. We find that hemispheric tectonics, the surface expression of degree-1 convection with downwellings forming on one hemisphere and upwelling material rising on the opposite hemisphere, is a consequence of the strong lithosphere rather than surface temperature contrast. Anchored hemispheric tectonics, where downwellings und upwellings have a preferred (day/night) hemisphere, is favoured for strong temperature contrasts between the dayside and nightside and higher surface temperatures., Comment: 36 pages, 13 figures, updated with version accepted for publication in JGR: Planets

Even though sub-Neptunes likely represent the most common outcome of planet formation, their natures remain poorly understood. In particular, planets near 1.5-2.5$\,R_\oplus$ often have bulk densities that can be explained equally well with widely different compositions and interior structures, resulting in grossly divergent implications for their formation. Here, we present the full 0.6-5.2$\,\mu \mathrm{m}$ JWST NIRISS/SOSS+NIRSpec/G395H transmission spectrum of the 2.2$\,R_\oplus$ TOI-270d ($4.78\,M_\oplus$, $T_\mathrm{eq}$=350-380 K), delivering unprecedented sensitivity for atmospheric characterization in the sub-Neptune regime. We detect five vibrational bands of CH$_4$ at 1.15, 1.4, 1.7, 2.3, and 3.3$\,\mu$m (9.4$\sigma$), the signature of CO$_2$ at 4.3$\,\mu$m (4.8$\sigma$), water vapor (2.5$\sigma$), and potential signatures of SO$_2$ at 4.0$\,\mu \mathrm{m}$ and CS$_2$ at 4.6$\,\mu\mathrm{m}$. Intriguingly, we find an overall highly metal-rich atmosphere, with a mean molecular weight of $5.47_{-1.14}^{+1.25}$. We infer an atmospheric metal mass fraction of $58_{-12}^{+8}\%$ and a C/O of $0.47_{-0.19}^{+0.16}$, indicating that approximately half the mass of the outer envelope is in high-molecular-weight volatiles (H$_2$O, CH$_4$, CO, CO$_2$) rather than H$_2$/He. We introduce a sub-Neptune classification scheme and identify TOI-270d as a "miscible-envelope sub-Neptune" in which H$_2$/He is well-mixed with the high-molecular-weight volatiles in a miscible supercritical metal-rich envelope. For a fully miscible envelope, we conclude that TOI-270d's interior is $90_{-4}^{+3}\,$wt$\,\%$ rock/iron, indicating that it formed as a rocky planet that accreted a few wt % of H$_2$/He, with the overall envelope metal content explained by magma-ocean/envelope reactions without the need for significant ice accretion. TOI-270d may well be an archetype of the overall population of sub-Neptunes., Comment: 25 pages, 12 figures

Ultra-hot Jupiters (UHJs) are natural laboratories to study extreme physics in planetary atmospheres and their rich observational data sets are yet to be confronted with models with varying complexities at a population level. In this work, we update the general circulation model of Tan & Komacek (2019) to include a non-grey radiative transfer scheme and apply it to simulate the realistic thermal structures, phase-dependent spectra, and wavelength-dependent phase curves of UHJs. We performed grids of models over a large range of equilibrium temperatures and rotation periods for varying assumptions, showing that the fractional day-night brightness temperature differences remain almost constant or slightly increase with increasing equilibrium temperature from the visible to mid-infrared wavelengths. This differs from previous work primarily due to the increasing planetary rotation rate with increasing equilibrium temperature for fixed host star type. Radiative effects of varying atmospheric compositions become more significant in dayside brightness temperature in longer wavelengths. Data-model comparisons of dayside brightness temperatures and phase curve amplitudes as a function of equilibrium temperature are in broad agreement. Observations show a large scatter compared to models even with a range of different assumptions, indicating significantly varying intrinsic properties in the hot Jupiter population. Our cloud-free models generally struggle to match all observations for individual targets with a single set of parameter choices, indicating the need for extra processes for understanding the heat transport of UHJs., Comment: Accepted to MNRAS; data underlying this article is available in Zenodo https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10121933

The atmospheric dynamics of tidally-locked hot Jupiters is characterized by strong equatorial winds. Understanding the interaction between global circulation and chemistry is crucial in atmospheric studies and interpreting observations. Two-dimensional (2D) photochemical transport models shed light on how the atmospheric composition depends on circulation. In this paper, we introduce the 2D photochemical (horizontal and vertical) transport model, VULCAN 2D, which improves on the pseudo-2D approaches by allowing for non-uniform zonal winds. We extensively validate our VULCAN 2D with analytical solutions and benchmark comparisons. Applications to HD 189733 b and HD 209458 b reveal a transition in mixing regimes: horizontal transport predominates below $\sim$0.1 mbar while vertical mixing is more important at higher altitudes above 0.1 mbar. Motivated by the previously inferred carbon-rich atmosphere, we find that HD 209458 b with super-solar carbon-to-oxygen ratio (C/O) exhibits pronounced C$_2$H$_4$ absorption on the morning limb but not on the evening limb, owing to horizontal transport from the nightside. We discuss when a pseudo-2D approach is a valid assumption and its inherent limitations. Finally, we demonstrate the effect of horizontal transport in transmission observations and its impact on the morning-evening limb asymmetry with synthetic spectra, highlighting the need to consider global transport when interpreting exoplanet atmospheres., Comment: 19 pages, 20 figures, published in ApJ

Compositional convection is atmospheric mixing driven by density variations caused by compositional gradients. Previous studies have suggested that compositional gradients of atmospheric trace species within planetary atmospheres can impact convection and the final atmospheric temperature profile. In this work, we employ 3D convection resolving simulations using Cloud Model 1 (CM1) to gain a fundamental understanding of how compositional variation influences convection and the final atmospheric state of exoplanet atmospheres. We perform 3D initial value problem simulations of non-condensing compositional convection for Earth-Air, $\rm H_2$, and $\rm CO_2$ atmospheres. Conventionally, atmospheric convection is assumed to mix the atmosphere to a final, marginally stable state defined by a unique temperature profile. However, when there is compositional variation within an atmosphere, a continuous family of stable end states is possible, differing in the final state composition profile. Our CM1 simulations are used to determine which of the family of possible compositional end states is selected. Leveraging the results from our CM1 simulations, we develop a dry convective adjustment scheme for use in General Circulation Models (GCMs). This scheme relies on an energy analysis to determine the final adjusted atmospheric state. Our convection scheme produces results that agree with our CM1 simulations and can easily be implemented in GCMs to improve modelling of compositional convection in exoplanet atmospheres.

Hycean worlds are a proposed subset of sub-Neptune exoplanets with substantial water inventories, liquid surface oceans and extended hydrogen-dominated atmospheres that could be favourable for habitability. In this work, we aim to quantitatively define the inner edge of the Hycean habitable zone using a 1D radiative-convective model. As a limiting case, we model a dry hydrogen-helium envelope above a surface ocean. We find that 10 to 20 bars of atmosphere produces enough greenhouse effect to drive a liquid surface ocean supercritical when forced with current Earth-like instellation. Introducing water vapour into the atmosphere, we show the runaway greenhouse instellation limit is greatly reduced due to the presence of superadiabatic layers where convection is inhibited. This moves the inner edge of the habitable zone from $\approx$ 1 AU for a G-star to 1.6 AU (3.85 AU) for a Hycean world with a H$_2$-He inventory of 1 bar (10 bar). For an M-star, the inner edge is equivalently moved from 0.17 AU to 0.28 AU (0.54 AU). Our results suggest that most of the current Hycean world observational targets are not likely to sustain a liquid water ocean. We present an analytical framework for interpreting our results, finding that the maximum possible OLR scales approximately inversely with the dry mass inventory of the atmosphere. We discuss the possible limitations of our 1D modelling and recommend the use of 3D convection-resolving models to explore the robustness of superadiabatic layers., Comment: Submitted to ApJ, comments welcome

The implications of the water vapor runaway greenhouse phenomenon for water-rich subNeptunes are developed. In particular, the nature of the post-runaway equilibration process for planets that have an extremely high water inventory is addressed. Crossing the threshold from sub-runaway to super-runaway conditions leads to a transition from equilibrated states with cold deep liquid oceans and deep interior ice-X phases to states with hot supercritical fluid interiors. There is a corresponding marked inflation of radius for a given mass, similar to the runaway greenhouse radius inflation effect noted earlier for terrestrial planets, but in the present case the inflation involves the entire interior of the planet. The calculation employs the AQUA equation of state database to simplify the internal structure calculation. Some speculations concerning the effect of $\mathrm{H_2}$ admixture, silicate cores and hot vs. cold start evolution trajectories are offered. Observational implications are discussed, though the search for the mass-radius signature of the phenomena considered is limited by degeneracies and by lack of data., Comment: Submitted to Astrophysical Journal

The gas giant HD 80606 b has a highly eccentric orbit (e $\sim$ 0.93). The variation due to the rapid shift of stellar irradiation provides a unique opportunity to probe the physical and chemical timescales and to study the interplay between climate dynamics and atmospheric chemistry. In this work, we present integrated models to study the atmospheric responses and the underlying physical and chemical mechanisms of HD 80606 b. We first run three-dimensional general circulation models (GCMs) to establish the atmospheric thermal and dynamical structures for different atmospheric metallicities and internal heat. Based on the GCM output, we then adopted a 1D time-dependent photochemical model to investigate the compositional variation along the eccentric orbit. The transition of the circulation patterns of HD 80606 b matched the dynamics regimes in previous works. Our photochemical models show that efficient vertical mixing leads to deep quench levels of the major carbon and nitrogen species and the quenching behavior does not change throughout the eccentric orbit. Instead, photolysis is the main driver of the time-dependent chemistry. While CH$_4$ dominates over CO through most of the orbits, a transient state of [CO]/[CH$_4$}] $>$ 1 after periastron is confirmed for all metallicity and internal heat cases. The upcoming JWST Cycle 1 GO program will be able to track this real-time CH$_4$--CO conversion and infer the chemical timescale. Furthermore, sulfur species initiated by sudden heating and photochemical forcing exhibit both short-term and long-term cycles, opening an interesting avenue for detecting sulfur on exoplanets., Comment: 18 pages, 18 figures, published in MNRAS

Lava planets have non-global, condensible atmospheres similar to icy bodies within the solar system. Because they depend on interior dynamics, studying the atmospheres of lava planets can lead to understanding unique geological processes driven by their extreme environment. Models of lava planet atmospheres have thus far focused on either radiative transfer or hydrodynamics. In this study, we couple the two processes by introducing ultraviolet and infrared radiation to a turbulent boundary layer model. We also test the effect of different vertical temperature profiles on atmospheric dynamics. Results from the model show that UV radiation affects the atmosphere much more than IR. UV heating and cooling work together to produce a horizontally isothermal atmosphere away from the sub-stellar point regardless of the vertical temperature profile. We also find that stronger temperature inversions induce stronger winds and hence cool the atmosphere. Our simulated transmission spectra of the bound atmosphere show a strong SiO feature in the UV that would be challenging to observe in the planet's transit spectrum due to the precision required. Our simulated emission spectra are more promising, with significant SiO spectral features at 4.5 and 9 $\mu$m that can be observed with the James Webb Space Telescope. Different vertical temperature profiles produce discernible dayside emission spectra, but not in the way one would expect., Comment: Accepted to MNRAS

Growing evidence has indicated that the global composition distribution plays an indisputable role in interpreting observational data. 3D general circulation models (GCMs) with a reliable treatment of chemistry and clouds are particularly crucial in preparing for the upcoming observations. In the effort of achieving 3D chemistry-climate modeling, the challenge mainly lies in the expensive computing power required for treating a large number of chemical species and reactions. Motivated by the need for a robust and computationally efficient chemical scheme, we devise a mini-chemical network with a minimal number of species and reactions for H$_2$-dominated atmospheres. We apply a novel technique to simplify the chemical network from a full kinetics model -- VULCAN by replacing a large number of intermediate reactions with net reactions. The number of chemical species is cut down from 67 to 12, with the major species of thermal and observational importance retained, including H$_2$O, CH$_4$, CO, CO$_2$, C$_2$H$_2$, NH$_3$, and HCN. The size of the total reactions is greatly reduced from $\sim$ 800 to 20. The mini-chemical scheme is validated by verifying the temporal evolution and benchmarking the predicted compositions in four exoplanet atmospheres (GJ 1214b, GJ 436b, HD 189733b, HD 209458b) against the full kinetics of VULCAN. It reproduces the chemical timescales and composition distributions of the full kinetics well within an order of magnitude for the major species in the pressure range of 1 bar -- 0.1 mbar across various metallicities and carbon-to-oxygen (C/O) ratios. The small scale of the mini-chemical scheme permits simple use and fast computation, which is optimal for implementation in a 3D GCM or a retrieval framework. We focus on the thermochemical kinetics of net reactions in this paper and address photochemistry in a follow-up paper., Comment: 9 pages, 5 figures, accepted for publication in A&A

Sub-Neptunes (planets with radii between 2 and 4 R$_{\oplus}$) are abundant around M-dwarf stars, yet the atmospheric dynamics of these planets is relatively unexplored. In this paper, we aim to provide a basic underpinning of the dry dynamics of general low mean molecular weight, temperate sub-Neptune atmospheres. We use the ExoFMS GCM with an idealised grey gas radiation scheme to simulate planetary atmospheres with different levels of instellation and rotation rates, using the atmosphere of K2-18b as our control. We find that the atmospheres of tidally-locked, temperate sub-Neptunes have weak horizontal temperature gradients owing to their slow rotation rates and hydrogen-dominated composition. The zonal wind structure is dominated by high-latitude cyclostrophic jets driven by the conservation of angular momentum. At low pressures we observe superrotating equatorial jets, which we propose are driven by a Rossby-Kelvin instability similar to the type seen in simulations of idealised atmospheres with axisymmetric forcing. By viewing the flow in tidally-locked coordinates, we find the predominant overturning circulation to be between the dayside and nightside, and we derive scaling relations linking the tidally-locked streamfunction and vertical velocities to instellation. Comparing our results to the only other GCM study of K2-18b, we find significant qualitative differences in dynamics, highlighting the need for further collaboration and investigation into effects of different dynamical cores and physical parameterizations. This paper provides a baseline for studying the dry dynamics of temperate sub-Neptunes, which will be built on in part II with the introduction of moist effects., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ

Condensable species are crucial in shaping planetary climate. A wide range of planetary climate systems involve understanding non-dilute condensable substances and their influence on climate dynamics. There has been progress on large-scale dynamical effects and on 1D convection parameterization, but resolved 3D moist convection remains unexplored in non-dilute conditions, though it can have a profound impact on temperature/humidity profiles and cloud structure. We tackle this problem for pure-steam atmospheres using three-dimensional, high-resolution numerical simulations of convection in post-runaway atmospheres where the water reservoir at the surface has been exhausted. We show that the atmosphere is comprised of two characteristic regions, an upper condensing region dominated by gravity waves and a lower noncondensing region characterized by convective overturning cells. Velocities in the condensing region are much smaller than those in the lower noncondensing region, and the horizontal temperature variation is small overall. Condensation in the thermal photosphere is largely driven by radiative cooling and tends to be statistically homogeneous. Some condensation also happens deeper, near the boundary of the condensing region, due to triggering by gravity waves and convective penetrations and exhibit random patchiness. This qualitative structure is insensitive to varying model parameters, but quantitative details may differ. Our results confirm theoretical expectations that atmospheres close to the pure-steam limit do not have organized deep convective plumes in the condensing region. The generalized convective parameterization scheme discussed in Ding & Pierrehumbert (2016) is appropriate to handle the basic structure of atmospheres near the pure-steam limit but is difficult to capture gravity waves and their mixing that appear in 3D convection-resolving models., Comment: 10 pages, 4 figures, accepted to ApJL

Planets smaller than Neptune and larger than Earth make up the majority of the discovered exoplanets. Those with H$_2$-rich atmospheres are prime targets for atmospheric characterization. The transition between the two main classes, super-Earths and sub-Neptunes, is not clearly understood as the rocky surface is likely not accessible to observations. Tracking several trace gases (specifically the loss of ammonia (NH$_3$) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN)) has been proposed as a proxy for the presence of a shallow surface. In this work, we revisit the proposed mechanism of nitrogen conversion in detail and find its timescale on the order of a million years. NH$_3$ exhibits dual paths converting to N$_2$ or HCN, depending on the UV radiation of the star and the stage of the system. In addition, methanol (CH$_3$OH) is identified as a robust and complementary proxy for a shallow surface. We follow the fiducial example of K2-18b with a 2D photochemical model (VULCAN) on an equatorial plane. We find a fairly uniform composition distribution below 0.1 mbar controlled by the dayside, as a result of slow chemical evolution. NH$_3$ and CH$_3$OH are concluded to be the most unambiguous proxies to infer surfaces on sub-Neptunes in the era of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJL

The runaway greenhouse represents the ultimate climate catastrophe for rocky, Earth-like worlds: when the incoming stellar flux cannot be balanced by radiation to space, the oceans evaporate and exacerbate heating, turning the planet into a hot wasteland with a steam atmosphere overlying a possibly molten magma surface. The equilibrium state beyond the runaway greenhouse instellation limit depends on the radiative properties of the atmosphere and its temperature structure. Here, we use 1-D radiative-convective models of steam atmospheres to explore the transition from the tropospheric radiation limit to the post-runaway climate state. To facilitate eventual simulations with 3-D global circulation models, a computationally efficient band-grey model is developed, which is capable of reproducing the key features of the more comprehensive calculations. We analyze two factors which determine the equilibrated surface temperature of post-runaway planets. The infrared cooling of the planet is strongly enhanced by the penetration of the dry adiabat into the optically thin upper regions of the atmosphere. In addition, thermal emission of both shortwave and near-IR fluxes from the hot lower atmospheric layers, which can radiate through window regions of the spectrum, is quantified. Astronomical surveys of rocky exoplanets in the runaway greenhouse state may discriminate these features using multi-wavelength observations., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ; 19 pages, 11 figures; Summary video available at https://exoplanet-talks.org/talk/379

Radiative-transfer (RT) is a fundamental part of modelling exoplanet atmospheres with general circulation models (GCMs). An accurate RT scheme is required for estimates of the atmospheric energy transport and for gaining physical insight from model spectra. We implement three RT schemes for Exo-FMS: semi-grey, non-grey `picket fence', and real gas with correlated-k. We benchmark the Exo-FMS GCM using these RT schemes to hot Jupiter simulation results from the literature. We perform a HD 209458b-like simulation with the three schemes and compare their results. These simulations are then post-processed to compare their observable differences. The semi-grey scheme results show qualitative agreement with previous studies in line with variations seen between GCM models. The real gas model reproduces well the temperature and dynamical structures from other studies. After post-processing our non-grey picket fence scheme compares very favourably with the real gas model, producing similar transmission spectra, emission spectra and phase curve behaviours. Exo-FMS is able to reliably reproduce the essential features of contemporary GCM models in the hot gas giant regime. Our results suggest the picket fence approach offers a simple way to improve upon RT realism beyond semi-grey schemes., Comment: MNRAS accepted 22 June 2021 - V2, typos fixed

A large fraction of known terrestrial-size exoplanets located in the Habitable Zone of M-dwarfs are expected to be tidally-locked. Numerous efforts have been conducted to study the climate of such planets, using in particular 3-D Global Climate Models (GCM). One of the biggest challenges in simulating such an extreme environment is to properly represent the effects of sub-grid convection. Most GCMs use either a simplistic convective-adjustment parametrization or sophisticated (e.g., mass flux scheme) Earth-tuned parametrizations. One way to improve the representation of convection is to study convection using Convection Resolving numerical Models (CRMs), with an fine spatial resolution . In this study, we developed a CRM coupling the non-hydrostatic dynamical core WRF with the radiative transfer and cloud/precipitation models of the LMD-Generic climate model to study convection and clouds on tidally-locked planets, with a focus on Proxima b. Simulations were performed for a set of 3 surface temperatures (corresponding to three different incident fluxes) and 2 rotation rates, assuming an Earth-like atmosphere. The main result of our study is that while we recover the prediction of GCMs that (low-altitude) cloud albedo increases with increasing stellar flux, the cloud feedback is much weaker due to transient aggregation of convection leading to low partial cloud cover., Comment: Accepted for publications in The Astrophysical Journal. 42 pages, 14 figures, 1 table

The earliest atmospheres of rocky planets originate from extensive volatile release during magma ocean epochs that occur during assembly of the planet. These establish the initial distribution of the major volatile elements between different chemical reservoirs that subsequently evolve via geological cycles. Current theoretical techniques are limited in exploring the anticipated range of compositional and thermal scenarios of early planetary evolution, even though these are of prime importance to aid astronomical inferences on the environmental context and geological history of extrasolar planets. Here, we present a coupled numerical framework that links an evolutionary, vertically-resolved model of the planetary silicate mantle with a radiative-convective model of the atmosphere. Using this method we investigate the early evolution of idealized Earth-sized rocky planets with end-member, clear-sky atmospheres dominated by either H$_2$, H$_2$O, CO$_2$, CH$_4$, CO, O$_2$, or N$_2$. We find central metrics of early planetary evolution, such as energy gradient, sequence of mantle solidification, surface pressure, or vertical stratification of the atmosphere, to be intimately controlled by the dominant volatile and outgassing history of the planet. Thermal sequences fall into three general classes with increasing cooling timescale: CO, N$_2$, and O$_2$ with minimal effect, H$_2$O, CO$_2$, and CH$_4$ with intermediate influence, and H$_2$ with several orders of magnitude increase in solidification time and atmosphere vertical stratification. Our numerical experiments exemplify the capabilities of the presented modeling framework and link the interior and atmospheric evolution of rocky exoplanets with multi-wavelength astronomical observations., Comment: Accepted for publication in JGR Planets; 23 pages, 10 figures; summaries available at https://bit.ly/MO21_blog (blog) and http://bit.ly/MO21_video (video)

We use an idealized three-dimensional general circulation model to study condensible-rich atmospheres with an ineffective cold trap on slowly rotating tidally locked terrestrial planets. In particular, we show the climate dynamics in a thin and temperate atmosphere with condensible water vapor. The similarities between our thin and temperate atmosphere and the warm and thick atmosphere approaching the water vapor runaway greenhouse in previous works are discussed, including the reversal of the thermal emission between the day and night hemispheres. Different from the transit spectroscopy of water vapor that depends on the absolute amount of atmospheric water vapor, the contrast between the dayside and nightside thermal emission provides information regarding the relative ratio of water vapor to the background atmosphere as well as the atmospheric pressure near the substellar tropopause and the emission level on the nightside on potentially habitable worlds., Comment: 15 pages, 4 figures

The atmospheric circulation of tidally locked planets is dominated by a superrotating eastward equatorial jet. We develop a predictive theory for the formation of this jet, proposing a mechanism in which the three-dimensional stationary waves induced by the day-night forcing gradient produce an equatorial acceleration. This is balanced in equilibrium by an interaction between the resulting jet and the vertical motion of the atmosphere. The three-dimensional structure of the zonal acceleration is vital to this mechanism. We demonstrate this mechanism in a hierarchy of models. We calculate the three-dimensional stationary waves induced by the forcing on these planets, and show the vertical structure of the zonal acceleration produced by these waves, which we use to suggest a mechanism for how the jet forms. GCM simulations are used to confirm the equilibrium state predicted by this mechanism, where the acceleration from these waves is balanced by an interaction between the zonal-mean vertical velocity and the jet. We derive a simple model of this using the "Weak Temperature Gradient" approximation, which gives an estimate of the jet speed on a terrestrial tidally locked planet. We conclude that the proposed mechanism is a good description of the formation of an equatorial jet on a terrestrial tidally locked planet, and should be useful for interpreting observations and simulations of these planets. The mechanism requires assumptions such as a large equatorial Rossby radius and weak acceleration due to transient waves, and a different mechanism may produce the equatorial jets on gaseous tidally locked planets., Comment: Accepted by ApJ

Context: White dwarf - Brown dwarf short period binaries (P$_{\rm orb}$ $\lesssim$ 2 hours) are some of the most extreme irradiated atmospheric environments known. These systems offer an opportunity to explore theoretical and modelling efforts of irradiated atmospheres different to typical hot Jupiter systems. Aims: We aim to investigate the three dimensional atmospheric structural and dynamical properties of the Brown dwarf WD0137-349B. Methods: We use the three dimensional GCM model Exo-FMS, with a dual-band grey radiative-transfer scheme to model the atmosphere of WD0137-349B. The results of the GCM model are post-processed using the three dimensional Monte Carlo radiative-transfer model \textsc{cmcrt}. Results: Our results suggest inefficient day-night energy transport and a large day-night temperature contrast for WD0137-349B. Multiple flow patterns are present, shifting energy asymmetrically eastward or westward depending on their zonal direction and latitude. Regions of overturning are produced on the western terminator. We are able to reproduce the start of the system near-IR emission excess at $\gtrsim$ 1.95 $\mu$m as observed by the GNIRS instrument. Our model over predicts the IR phase curve fluxes by factors of $\approx$1-3, but generally fits the shape of the phase curves well. Chemical kinetic modelling using \textsc{vulcan} suggests a highly ionised region at high altitudes can form on the dayside of the Brown dwarf. Conclusions: We present a first attempt at simulating the atmosphere of a short period White dwarf - Brown dwarf binary in a 3D setting. Further studies into the radiative and photochemical heating from the UV irradiation is required to more accurately capture the energy balance inside the Brown dwarf atmosphere. Cloud formation may also play an important role in shaping the emission spectra of the Brown dwarf., Comment: Version 2 - Accepted June 19 2020 (MNRAS)

We are now on a clear trajectory for improvements in exoplanet observations that will revolutionize our ability to characterize their atmospheric structure, composition, and circulation, from gas giants to rocky planets. However, exoplanet atmospheric models capable of interpreting the upcoming observations are often limited by insufficiencies in the laboratory and theoretical data that serve as critical inputs to atmospheric physical and chemical tools. Here we provide an up-to-date and condensed description of areas where laboratory and/or ab initio investigations could fill critical gaps in our ability to model exoplanet atmospheric opacities, clouds, and chemistry, building off a larger 2016 white paper, and endorsed by the NAS Exoplanet Science Strategy report. Now is the ideal time for progress in these areas, but this progress requires better access to, understanding of, and training in the production of spectroscopic data as well as a better insight into chemical reaction kinetics both thermal and radiation-induced at a broad range of temperatures. Given that most published efforts have emphasized relatively Earth-like conditions, we can expect significant and enlightening discoveries as emphasis moves to the exotic atmospheres of exoplanets., Comment: Submitted as an Astro2020 Science White Paper

We use a linear shallow-water model to investigate the global circulation of the atmospheres of tidally locked planets. Simulations, observations, and simple models show that if these planets are sufficiently rapidly rotating, their atmospheres have an eastward equatorial jet and a hot-spot east of the substellar point. We linearize the shallow-water model about this eastward flow and its associated height perturbation. The forced solutions of this system show that the shear flow explains the form of the global circulation, particularly the hot-spot shift and the positions of the cold standing waves on the night-side. We suggest that the eastward hot-spot shift seen in observations and 3D simulations of these atmospheres is caused by the zonal flow Doppler-shifting the stationary wave response eastwards, summed with the height perturbation from the flow itself. This differs from other studies which explained the hot-spot shift as pure advection of heat from air flowing eastward from the substellar point, or as equatorial waves travelling eastwards. We compare our solutions to simulations in our climate model Exo-FMS, and show that the height fields and wind patterns match. We discuss how planetary properties affect the global circulation, and how they change observables such as the hot-spot shift or day-night contrast. We conclude that the wave-mean flow interaction between the stationary planetary waves and the equatorial jet is a vital part of the equilibrium circulation on tidally locked planets., Comment: Accepted by ApJ

The distribution of a pure condensible planetary atmosphere in equilibrium with a surface reservoir is revisited employing the energy budget of the climate system, emphasizing the atmospheric horizontal latent heat transport. This configuration is applicable to icy Solar System bodies such as Triton as well as a range of possible exoplanet atmospheres, including water or $\mathrm{CO_2}$ iceballs or ocean worlds, and lava planets with mineral vapor atmospheres. Climate regimes for slowly rotating planets with the hot-spot near the substellar point, and for rapidly rotating planets with a warm equatorial belt, are both treated. A non-dimensional parameter controlling the fractional variation of the surface pressure is derived; it measures whether the pure condensible atmosphere is global or localized. The global pure condensible atmosphere with the non-dimensional parameter much less than order of unity is maintained by the strong horizontal latent heat transport associated with an "evaporation/sublimation-driven flow" from warm to cold places that compensates for the incoming differential radiative forcing. We show that the variation of surface temperature can be estimated in terms of this non-dimensional parameter if it is not too large. In the case of a pure water-vapor atmosphere with an ice or liquid surface, we show that the atmosphere is thick enough to maintain nearly isothermal surface conditions even when the substellar surface temperature is around the freezing point. Finally, it is proposed that the evaporation/sublimation-driven flow regime for global atmospheres could be detected via its effect on the inhomogeneous distribution of minor non-condensible components in the atmosphere., Comment: accepted for publication in ApJ

Previous studies of haze formation in the atmosphere of the Early Earth have focused on N$_{2}$/CO$_{2}$/CH$_{4}$ atmospheres. Here, we experimentally investigate the effect of O$_{2}$ on the formation and composition of aerosols to improve our understanding of haze formation on the Neoproterozoic Earth. We obtained in situ size, particle density, and composition measurements of aerosol particles produced from N$_{2}$/CO$_{2}$/CH$_{4}$/O$_{2}$ gas mixtures subjected to FUV radiation (115-400 nm) for a range of initial CO$_{2}$/CH$_{4}$/O$_{2}$ mixing ratios (O$_{2}$ ranging from 2 ppm to 0.2\%). At the lowest O$_{2}$ concentration (2 ppm), the addition increased particle production for all but one gas mixture. At higher oxygen concentrations (20 ppm and greater) particles are still produced, but the addition of O$_{2}$ decreases the production rate. Both the particle size and number density decrease with increasing O$_{2}$, indicating that O$_{2}$ affects particle nucleation and growth. The particle density increases with increasing O$_{2}$. The addition of CO$_{2}$ and O$_{2}$ not only increases the amount of oxygen in the aerosol, but it also increases the degree of nitrogen incorporation. In particular, the addition of O$_{2}$ results in the formation of nitrate bearing molecules. The fact that the presence of oxygen bearing molecules increases the efficiency of nitrogen fixation has implications for the role of haze as a source of molecules required for the origin and evolution of life. The composition changes also likely affect the absorption and scattering behavior of these particles but optical properties measurements are required to fully understand the implications for the effect on the planetary radiative energy balance and climate., Comment: 15 pages, 3 tables, 8 figures, accepted in Astrophysical Journal

The thermal phase curve of 55 Cancri e is the first measurement of the temperature distribution of a tidally locked Super-Earth, but raises a number of puzzling questions about the planet's climate. The phase curve has a high amplitude and peak offset, suggesting that it has a significant eastward hot-spot shift as well as a large day-night temperature contrast. We use a general circulation model to model potential climates, and investigate the relation between bulk atmospheric composition and the magnitude of these seemingly contradictory features. We confirm theoretical models of tidally locked circulation are consistent with our numerical model of 55 Cnc e, and rule out certain atmospheric compositions based on their thermodynamic properties. Our best-fitting atmosphere has a significant hot-spot shift and day-night contrast, although these are not as large as the observed phase curve. We discuss possible physical processes which could explain the observations, and show that night-side cloud formation from species such as SiO from a day-side magma ocean could potentially increase the phase curve amplitude and explain the observations. We conclude that the observations could be explained by an optically thick atmosphere with a low mean molecular weight, a surface pressure of several bar and a strong eastward circulation, with night-side cloud formation a possible explanation for the difference between our model and the observations., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ

Condensible substances are nearly ubiquitous in planetary atmospheres. For the most familiar case-water vapor in Earth's present climate-the condensible gas is dilute, in the sense that its concentration is everywhere small relative to the noncondensible background gases. A wide variety of important planetary climate problems involve nondilute condensible substances. These include planets near or undergoing a water vapor runaway and planets near the outer edge of the conventional habitable zone, for which CO2 is the condensible. Standard representations of convection in climate models rely on several approximations appropriate only to the dilute limit, while nondilute convection differs in fundamental ways from dilute convection. In this paper, a simple parameterization of convection valid in the nondilute as well as dilute limits is derived and used to discuss the basic character of nondilute convection. The energy conservation properties of the scheme are discussed in detail and are verified in radiative-convective simulations. As a further illustration of the behavior of the scheme, results for a runaway greenhouse atmosphere for both steady instellation and seasonally varying instellation corresponding to a highly eccentric orbit are presented. The latter case illustrates that the high thermal inertia associated with latent heat in nondilute atmospheres can damp out the effects of even extreme seasonal forcing., Comment: Accepted for publication in ApJ with minor revisions

The diversity of characteristics for the host of recently discovered exoplanets opens up a great deal of fertile new territory for geophysical fluid dynamics, particularly when the fluid flow is coupled to novel thermodynamics, radiative transfer or chemistry. In this paper, we survey one of these new areas-the climate dynamics of atmospheres with a non-dilute condensible component, defined as the situation in which a condensible component of the atmosphere makes up a substantial fraction of the atmospheric mass within some layer. Non-dilute dynamics can occur for a wide range of condensibles, generically applying near both the inner and the outer edges of the conventional habitable zone and in connection with runaway greenhouse phenomena. It also applies in a wide variety of other planetary circumstances. We first present a number of analytical results developing some key features of non-dilute atmospheres, and then show how some of these features are manifest in simulations with a general circulation model adapted to handle non-dilute atmospheres. We find that non-dilute atmospheres have weak horizontal temperature gradients even for rapidly rotating planets, and that their circulations are largely barotropic. The relative humidity of the condensible component tends towards 100% as the atmosphere becomes more non-dilute, which has important implications for runaway greenhouse thresholds. Non-dilute atmospheres exhibit a number of interesting organized convection features, for which there is not yet any adequate theoretical understanding., Comment: Accepted for publication in Proc. R. Soc. A

Advancements in our understanding of exoplanetary atmospheres, from massive gas giants down to rocky worlds, depend on the constructive challenges between observations and models. We are now on a clear trajectory for improvements in exoplanet observations that will revolutionize our ability to characterize the atmospheric structure, composition, and circulation of these worlds. These improvements stem from significant investments in new missions and facilities, such as JWST and the several planned ground-based extremely large telescopes. However, while exoplanet science currently has a wide range of sophisticated models that can be applied to the tide of forthcoming observations, the trajectory for preparing these models for the upcoming observational challenges is unclear. Thus, our ability to maximize the insights gained from the next generation of observatories is not certain. In many cases, uncertainties in a path towards model advancement stems from insufficiencies in the laboratory data that serve as critical inputs to atmospheric physical and chemical tools. We outline a number of areas where laboratory or ab initio investigations could fill critical gaps in our ability to model exoplanet atmospheric opacities, clouds, and chemistry. Specifically highlighted are needs for: (1) molecular opacity linelists with parameters for a diversity of broadening gases, (2) extended databases for collision-induced absorption and dimer opacities, (3) high spectral resolution opacity data for relevant molecular species, (4) laboratory studies of haze and condensate formation and optical properties, (5) significantly expanded databases of chemical reaction rates, and (6) measurements of gas photo-absorption cross sections at high temperatures. We hope that by meeting these needs, we can make the next two decades of exoplanet science as productive and insightful as the previous two decades. (abr), Comment: This is a white paper originally initiated within NASA's Nexus for Exoplanet System Science (NExSS), with additional community input. Community comment is welcome. Please submit comments and suggestions by going to the Google Doc version of the paper: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1109uy_5n9VWuOOn-huTVv-gJgBFRO9QH0Ojkao1a6Lk/edit?usp=sharing

We use a 3D general circulation model to compare the primitive Martian hydrological cycle in "warm and wet" and "cold and icy" scenarios. In the warm and wet scenario, an anomalously high solar flux or intense greenhouse warming artificially added to the climate model are required to maintain warm conditions and an ice-free northern ocean. Precipitation shows strong surface variations, with high rates around Hellas basin and west of Tharsis but low rates around Margaritifer Sinus (where the observed valley network drainage density is nonetheless high). In the cold and icy scenario, snow migration is a function of both obliquity and surface pressure, and limited episodic melting is possible through combinations of seasonal, volcanic and impact forcing. At surface pressures above those required to avoid atmospheric collapse (~0.5 bar) and moderate to high obliquity, snow is transported to the equatorial highland regions where the concentration of valley networks is highest. Snow accumulation in the Aeolis quadrangle is high, indicating an ice-free northern ocean is not required to supply water to Gale crater. At lower surface pressures and obliquities, both H2O and CO2 are trapped as ice at the poles and the equatorial regions become extremely dry. The valley network distribution is positively correlated with snow accumulation produced by the cold and icy simulation at 41.8 degrees obliquity but uncorrelated with precipitation produced by the warm and wet simulation. Because our simulations make specific predictions for precipitation patterns under different climate scenarios, they motivate future targeted geological studies., Comment: 20 pages, 14 figures, 2 tables. In press at JGR (Planets)