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Epiphytic lichens constitute an important component of biodiversity in both deforested and forest ecosystems. Widespread occurrence is the domain of generalist lichens or those that prefer open areas. While, many stenoecious lichens find shelter only in a shaded interior of forests. Light is one of the factors known to be responsible for lichen distribution. Nevertheless, the effect of light intensity on photosynthesis of lichen photobionts remain largely unknown. We investigated photosynthesis in lichens with different ecological properties in relation to light as the only parameter modified during the experiments. The aim was to find links between this parameter and habitat requirements of a given lichen. We applied the methods based on a saturating light pulse and modulated light to perform comprehensive analyses of fast and slow chlorophyll fluorescence transient (OJIP and PSMT) combined with quenching analysis. We also examined the rate of CO2 assimilation. Common or generalist lichens, i.e. Hypogymnia physodes, Flavoparmelia caperata and Parmelia sulcata, are able to adapt to a wide range of light intensity. Moreover, the latter species, which prefers open areas, dissipates the excess energy most efficiently. Conversely, Cetrelia cetrarioides considered an old-growth forest indicator, demonstrates definitely lower range of energy dissipation than other species, although it assimilates CO2 efficiently both at low and high light. We conclude that functional plasticity of the thylakoid membranes of photobionts largely determines the dispersal abilities of lichens and light intensity is one of the most important factors determining the specificity of a species to a given habitat.

Mycobionts of many lichen genera appear to demonstrate strong selectivity in the choice of algal partner. The biological properties of a photobiont and its availability in an environment significantly determine the habitat requirements of lichens. Flexibility in photobiont choice extends the ecological amplitude of lichens; therefore, it may constitute an important adaptive strategy for colonization of extreme habitats. The photobiont inventory of the three epigeic lichens most resistant to soil pollution, i.e., Cladonia cariosa, C. rei, and the hyperaccumulator Diploschistes muscorum, was examined to verify whether and to what extent algal composition depends on the type of habitat and substrate enrichment with heavy metals. Photobionts Asterochloris and Trebouxia were identified in the studied lichen species; however, the presence of Trebouxia was directly related to anthropogenic sites with technogenic substrates, and the proportion of lichen specimens with these algae clearly depended on the level of heavy-metal soil pollution and the habitat type. The total number of algal haplotypes increased with increasing soil pollution, and the richness was associated more with soil pollution than with a given lichen species. Additionally, a large number of lichen individuals bearing multiple algal genotypes at polluted sites were recorded. Although Cladonia lichens were previously thought to be restricted to Asterochloris, they are able to start the relichenization process with Trebouxia under specific habitat conditions and to establish a stable association with these algae when colonization of disturbed sites takes place. Comparative analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rDNA sequences revealed as many as 13 haplotypes of Trebouxia, and phylogenetic analysis grouped them into two different clades. Such a high level of genetic diversity indicates that Trebouxia is well adapted to metal pollution and could be an alternative photosynthetic partner for certain lichens, especially in polluted sites.

Heavy metals present in the environment can cause a variety of injury symptoms in various organisms including lichens. Most studies examined metal-induced stress under controlled laboratory conditions, and little is known about actual response of lichens in their natural habitat. This study aims to recognize the effect of heavy metal accumulation (total and intracellular) on lichen physiological and biochemical parameters specifically related to the functioning of fungal component. Cladonia rei was used as a model species due to its common occurrence both in unpolluted and extremely polluted sites. We observed a decline in the fungal metabolism which was expressed by a decrease in ergosterol content and an increase in cell membrane damage as a result of increased Zn, Cd, Cu and Ni accumulation. Additionally, the results indicated that increased accumulation of xenobiotics (Pb and As) caused reduction of glutathione (GSH) concentrations and increased membrane lipid peroxidation. Therefore, we conclude that GSH does not provide high oxidative stress protection in C. rei which is somewhat against its insensitivity to pollution. The reduced pool of GSH could be explained by its oxidation to glutathione disulphide induced by heavy metal stress or its use for phytochelatin (PC) synthesis. The content of secondary metabolites was not related to heavy metal accumulation and remained at a relatively stable level. This indicates that the decline in the physi-ological condition did not weaken the mycobiont of C. rei enough to inhibit the synthesis of secondary metabolites and their precursors were supplied at a sufficient level. Thus, the potential function of main secondary metabolites as extracellular metal immobilizers and antioxidants is still possible even in individuals growing at extremely polluted sites. Despite the evident heavy metal stress, C. rei copes well and spreads easily through extremely polluted environments, which underlines its unique pioneering abilities in highly disturbed sites.

Certain lichens are widely used in air pollution biomonitoring because the contents of various elements in their thalli accurately reflect the chemical composition of the air. Temporal changes in selected concentrations of trace metals in vegetative and generative parts of Xanthoria parietina thalli exposed to urban-related pollution were analysed and the relationship between anatomical organisation and element accumulation identified. The lichen material included thalli relocated to an urban area of Cracow (southern Poland) along with their host trees, which had previously been cultivated at a site characterised by a lower level of air pollution. The thalli were sampled immediately and 1, 3, 6, and 12 months after planting trees. Concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cd, Cu, Ni, and Cr, as measured by means of flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS), and various anatomical characteristics were determined in vegetative thalli and the corresponding apothecia. Accumulation of Pb over time demonstrated a pronounced upward trend; calculated exposed-to-control (EC) ratios indicate ‘severe accumulation’ of this element. Diverse levels of accumulation in different parts of thalli – higher, in the cases of Pb, Cd, Cu, Ni, Cr, and lower, in the case of Zn, in vegetative parts compared to apothecia – were observed. Thus sampling uniformity is highly desirable in air biomonitoring studies, along with a determination of which part of the thallus is to be designated for elemental analysis. The results also showed that certain anatomical characteristics are correlated with concentrations of metal elements in the thallus.

The synthesis of various unique secondary metabolites by lichens is the result of mutualistic symbiotic association between the mycobiont and autotrophic photobiont. The function of these compounds and causal factors for their production are not fully understood. This paper examines the effect of heavy-metal bioaccumulation and physiological parameters related to photosynthesis and carbon metabolism on the production of lichen substances in hyperaccumulator Diploschistes muscorum. The obtained model of secondary metabolite concentrations in the thalli demonstrates that the carbon source provided by the photobiont and associated polyols produced by the mycobiont have positive impact on the production; on the contrary, the increased intracellular load of heavy metals and excessive loss of cell membrane integrity adversely affected secondary metabolite contents. Additionally, the production of secondary metabolites appears to be more dependent on intracellular metal concentrations than on soil pollution level. To compensate for metal stress, both efficient functioning of algal component and sufficient production of secondary metabolites are required. The balanced physiological functioning of mycobiont and photobiont constitutes the complex protective mechanism to alleviate the harmful effects of heavy metal stress on primary and secondary metabolism of lichens.

The data presented here are related to the research article entitled “Cryptogamic communities as a useful bioindication tool for estimating the degree of soil pollution with heavy metals” (Rola and Osyczka, 2018) [1]. These data concern the relationships between epigeic cryptogamic biota and heavy metal concentrations in soil of areas associated with Zn–Pb industry. The presence of particular species and coverage of lichens and bryophytes as well as soil chemical parameters in relation to three different soil pollution classes and five habitat types are provided. Included data could be used to compare cryptogamic community structure and pollutant concentration levels with other Zn–Pb polluted areas. Keywords: Lichens, Bryophytes, Cryptogamic biota structure, Zn–Pb ores, Post-industrial areas, Environmental assessment

The aim of this study was to determine relationships between soil chemical parameters (i.e. content of total organic carbon, total nitrogen, total sulphur, soil pH) and vegetation development in relation to distance from the current glacier forehead and time elapsed after glacier retreat in the Irenebreen foreland. Three transects were designated along the foreland. Species and vegetation cover were investigated in 1 m2 plots, placed every 50 m along each transect; corresponding soil samples were collected and chemically analysed. The total organic carbon and total nitrogen contents in soil change according to power and exponential functions, respectively, whereas soil pH decreases linearly with increased time elapsed after glacier retreat. The wide variation in total sulphur contents prevent the determination of clear relationships. Bryophytes and vascular plants dominate in the younger part of the foreland, whereas epigeic lichens prevail in the older part. Vegetation cover seems to be the main factor effects on soil properties; however, chemical soil properties and distance from the glacier forehead affect species distribution and vegetation cover. Considered so far as the first pioneers, the epigeic lichens need more time than bryophytes and vascular plants to colonise the foreland.

Phenotypic traits of lichens can be greatly modified by environmental factors. Granulose thalli on soil and podetia, densely covered with granules, referring to common and widespread lichen Cladonia cervicornis subsp. verticillata were found near zinc smelter. The granules are stratified, filled with fungal medulla and heavily encrusted with calcium oxalate weddellite crystals, not observed on regularly developed thalli of the species. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that deformed granulose forms belong to this taxon, showing that the phenotypic plasticity of the lichens of Cladonia can lead to the emergence of features that do not coincide with the taxonomic definition of the species. The heavy-metal accumulation capacity of both granulose and regular form of primary and secondary lichen thallus, in relation to the element content in corresponding substrate, was determined. Granulose-modified thalli accumulate greater amounts of heavy metals than regular ones, meaning that the bioaccumulation property of a given species may be greatly affected by morphological modifications. The granulose forms are also characterised by considerably higher ratios of Cd, Pb and As concentrations in lichen samples in relation to the corresponding substrates than regular ones. This means that collection of variously formed thalli should be avoided in biomonitoring sampling procedures. The results indicate that a substantial part of the element load, in particular zinc, in the examined lichen thalli collected near the smelter originates from atmospheric fallout. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s11356-017-0639-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Heavy metals are known for their negative impact on the physiological processes of lichen photobiont. In spite of this, certain lichens are known to be effective pioneers of polluted sites. Cladonia cariosa, C. rei, and Diploschistes muscorum are prominent examples of lichens that spontaneously colonise post-industrial wastes. We examined the effect of total and intracellular Zn, Pb, Cd, As, Cu, and Ni accumulation in the thalli of these species on the physiological parameters of photobiont. Increased accumulation of Zn, Cd, Cu, and Ni in D. muscorum and of Zn and Ni in C. rei negatively affected contents of photosynthetic pigments, whereas concentrations of Pb had a positive effect in all lichen species. Moreover, pigment contents were positively associated with the concentrations of most examined elements in C. cariosa. The results indicate that even if chlorophyll contents reduced, its degradation does not progress. This suggests that metal stress may exert a negative effect on the synthesis rather than on the integrity of chlorophyll. Most importantly, lichen samples of each of the species from polluted sites proved to possess significantly higher FV/FM ratios than those from a reference site; moreover, the contents of elements of lichen thalli positively influenced this parameter. The efficient functioning of the algal component under heavy-metal stress conditions indicates that the examined lichens are well adapted to extremely contaminated substrates.

Certain lichens are effective colonisers of polluted sites. However, little is known about the tolerance of photobionts and the degree of mycobiont selectivity to photobionts relative to metal pollution. The present study recognises the genetic and anatomical diversity of Asterochloris photobionts in epigeic lichens, i.e. Cladonia cariosa, C. rei, and Diploschistes muscorum, in relation to a wide spectrum of soil pollution. In accordance with phylogenetic analysis, photobionts were clustered in 7 moderately- to well-supported clades, including 19 haplotypes. The mycobionts of all studied lichens demonstrated a low level of selectivity and were capable of associating with various Asterochloris lineages. This tendency was also expressed by the frequent (~25%) occurrence of multiple algal genotypes in a single thallus. This indicates that identified Asterochloris lineages are generally tolerant to heavy-metal pollution, and the low level of selectivity of mycobionts enables them to select the most suitable and/or available partner. The trend of increasing incidence of certain Asterochloris lineages and decreasing frequency of others along with increasing soil pollution was observed. This proves the superior adaptation of some photobionts to polluted sites. Such symbiotic plasticity constitute an adaptive feature necessary for the successful colonisation. High number of haplotypes at polluted sites could be the result of multiple introduction events from different areas during the initial stages of spontaneous succession. Regardless of the genetic pattern, Asterochloris cells were considerably smaller, and the density and compaction of cells in the algal layer were higher, in lichen specimens from polluted sites, indicating that photobiont characteristics may be closely dependent on heavy-metal pollution.

The study examines the changes of epiphytic lichen diversity in differently aged stands developing after clear cutting and pine planting on fertile habitats typical for deciduous forests. The study was conducted within one large complex consisting of pine, mixed pine-hornbeam and typical old oak-linden-hornbeam forests in northern Poland. Epiphytic lichens were recorded in 50 study plots randomly selected within 5 forest stand classes of a different structure and age, ranging from 80 to over 220 years. Altogether 143 lichen species were recorded, of which only 41 were entirely nonspecific, and were occurring in all the studied forest stand classes. Significant differences in lichen species richness between stand classes were found and the number of species increases with the forest age. Lichen species composition also differs and its changes progress towards restoration of lichen biota typical for deciduous forest consistent with the habitat. The age of the forest has the most significant effect on the biodiversity of lichen biota. Microhabitat space provided by oaks is highly desirable since it greatly enriches lichen biota in forests. Phorophyte specificity of particular lichens were assessed. Hornbeam and oak have the greatest number of species mostly confined to them and constitute a main refuge for lichens with a high conservation value. The changes of lichen biota are basically parallel with the changes of the forest stand structure. The selection of some parts within managed pine forests that should not be assigned for cutting in the future can be a simple procedure which helps to restore and preserve forest biodiversity.

The Arctic region is substantially a pristine area, but this unique part of the globe has also been contaminated by anthropogenic radioactive nuclides, and now there is still measurable activity of anthropogenic isotopes, even though more than 50 years have passed since the main source. Radionuclides in the Arctic, especially 90Sr have seldom been studied despite their considerable environmental importance. This manuscript covers the results of 90Sr and 137Cs measurements in soil and lichen Cetrariella delisei collected from the Svalbard in 2012. In both lichen thalli and surface soils high activities of 90Sr and 137Cs were recorded and ranged between 3.69 and 28.1 Bq kg-1 90Sr and 5.38-280.1 Bq kg-1137Cs in thalli and between 4.53 and 12.78 Bq kg-1dw 90Sr and 60.6-426.1 Bq kg-1dw 137Cs in surface soil layer. The activity of 90Sr and 137Cs in lichen thalli was influenced by distance from the glacier. This showed that during radionuclide biomonitoring of particular area with the use of lichens, it is important to take into account influence of environmental variability on radionuclides contents.

The study compares the epiphytic lichen communities of two different ecological systems of northern Poland, a non-forested area and a natural lowland deciduous forest corresponding to the potential vegetation flora of a large part of Central Europe, in relation to the same tree species. The impact of habitat type and tree species on individual tree properties and the association between tree size, bark pH, conductivity, water-holding capacity, bark splitting, light intensity at tree trunks and the composition of lichens were analysed. Three sets of lichens were identified: confined to non-forested areas (40 species), confined to forests (61 species), and non-specific mutual species (53 species). The results indicate that most species demonstrate specificity to habitat type rather than to tree species. Factors related to tree species and bark properties gain in importance at the level of a specific habitat. Bark pH and water-holding capacity are decisive factors for lichen occurrence in both habitat types; additionally, in forests, tree diameter is important. The paper provides potentially useful ecological data for campaigns aimed at lichen conservation and at shaping the environment with concern for biodiversity.

The epigeic lichens Cladonia rei and Diploschistes muscorum are effective heavy-metal-tolerant colonisers of highly polluted and disturbed sites. In this study we compare their bioaccumulation capacities, accumulation patterns, and responses to heavy-metal stress, as expressed in terms of cell membrane damage. We also aim at verifying the relationships between cell membrane damage and levels of soil pollution with heavy metals, and thereby to identify the bioindicative value of this physiological parameter. Total and intracellular concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cd, As, Cu, and Ni were measured in 140 samples of lichens and corresponding soil, collected from variously contaminated sites. Relative electrical conductivity (EC%) values were determined concurrently in the lichen samples. The studied lichens differ considerably in intracellular uptake susceptibility and the related reduction in membrane integrity. In C. rei thalli, more than half of Zn, Pb, Cd, and As loads are accumulated extracellularly, whereas D. muscorum exhibits a tendency towards intracellular accumulation of the same elements. This property is clearly reflected in cell membrane damage, which is considerably greater in the latter species irrespective of study site. This indicates that intracellular heavy-metal accumulation affects the level of cell membrane damage. Two soil pollution classes were distinguished for both lichens based on element contents in host-substrate samples. The losses of cell membrane integrity in lichen thalli are related to these classes. EC% values above 16 in C. rei and above 20 in D. muscorum suggest elevated levels of heavy metals in the soil. Consequently, this physiological parameter can serve as an early warning indicator for detection of elevated metal concentrations in soil. The biomonitoring method proposed here involves common and widespread lichen species and can be widely applied in post-industrial areas.

Kubiak, D. & Osyczka, P. 2019. Tree avenues as reservoir for epiphytic lichens in deforested landscapes. – Herzogia 32: 398 – 420.Old tree avenues are a disappearing traditional element in European landscapes. Roadside trees constitute an important habitat for many groups of organisms and support the maintenance of biodiversity in deforested areas, but they are often neglected in conservation strategies. This study describes and analyses the conservation value of planted trees along rural roads in NE Poland for epiphytic lichens. A total of 105 trunks of seven deciduous tree species were examined. Lichen species inventories were assembled for trunks at a height up to two meters from the ground. A total of 99 lichen species was recorded. Lichen species richness and cover were dependent primarily on tree species. Diameter of trees was not significantly correlated with the number of species. Ulmus laevis and, to a lesser extent, Fraxinus excelsior and Acer platanoides, were be the most valuable tree species in terms of lichen species richness. Quercus robur as a roadside tree did not have above-average species numbers. Lichen species with a preference for eutrophicated or alkaline bark occurred in their largest numbers on Populus nigra agg. Betula pendula hosted the largest number of species avoiding eutrophication. Each tree species had its own set of exclusive lichens and hosted taxa which are red-listed in Poland; however, no single tree species alone guarantees preservation of the entire range of epiphytic lichens on roadside trees in the study area. Since tree avenues, especially those composed of multiple species, provide a suitable habitat for various rare and endangered lichens, potentially high conservation value should always be attributed to this element of local landscapes in low pollution areas.

The diversity and distribution of lichen species were investigated in recently deglaciated areas of the borderland between Sørkapp Land and Torell Land (southeastern Spitsbergen, Svalbard). A total of 15 sites representing various habitat types specific to the area were evaluated. Sampling sites were characterized by a very diverse composition of lichens and species richness ranging from as few as two species to as many as 53. None of the species was ubiquitous among the investigated sampling sites; conversely, most were recorded only once or twice indicating a high heterogeneity in species distribution. Eighty species are reported for the first time from southeastern Spitsbergen. The terricolous lichen Verrucaria xyloxena is reported for the first time from the Svalbard archipelago. The influence of the selected abiotic and biotic environmental factors on the occurrences and distributions of lichen species is discussed in this paper.

Lichens and bryophytes have commonly been used as bioindicators of environmental conditions, especially in relation to air quality. However, their diagnostic role in the assessment of soil pollution is relatively poorly recognised. The aim of this study was to find a pattern of cryptogamic biota structure associated with zinc and lead soil pollution and to thereby identify common signal species useful for bioindication purposes. The study area encompassed various types of anthropogenic and semi-natural habitats directly associated with the processing of Zn-Pb ores in southern Poland. Detailed analysis of cryptogamic biota with respect to the chemical parameters of the corresponding soil enabled us to identify three different pollution classes related to the concentration of heavy metals and four distinct groups of ecologically close species with similar responses to the prevailing level of pollution. The significant relationship between soil chemical parameters and cryptogamic biota structure implies the high bioindicative value of the defined lichen and bryophyte assemblages. Consequently, specific sets of distinct species reflecting levels of pollution were instrumental in the development of a practical tool. This approach may constitute a first step in soil quality assessment in a broad landscape scale. It provides an opportunity for preliminary verification of the sites that are potentially the most contaminated and which require further attention, for example, within the framework of restoration projects, reclamation interventions, or conservation strategies. The proposed bioindication approach involves common, widespread lichens and bryophytes, thus increasing the potential for its wide application in post-industrial areas associated with the mining and processing of Zn-Pb ores.

The paper lists 337 species from Magurski National Park (MNP): 314 lichens, 18 lichenicolous fungi, four saprotrophic fungi and one lichenicolous myxomycete; 112 of them are new for MNP, 75 are reported for the first time for the Beskid Niski Mts, and two are new for Poland. Selected species are accompanied by taxonomic notes and remarks on their distribution in Poland and other Carpathian ranges. First records of Intralichen lichenicola, Burgoa angulosa and Verrucaria policensis and a second record of Epigloea urosperma are given for the whole Carpathian range, and Fuscidea arboricola was recorded for the first time in the Western Carpathians. Halecania viridescens and Mycomicrothelia confusa are new for the Polish Carpathians. The records of Absconditella pauxilla, Collema crispum, Licea parasitica and Rinodina griseosoralifera in MNP are their second known localities for the range. 93 species, mainly rare or threatened in Poland, were reported from MNP in the 20th century but were not refound.

In this study, we examined oribatid fauna of strongly contaminated post-smelting dumps (southern Poland) that exist in the substrate and are associated with the most frequent lichen, Cladonia rei. Due to artificial origin of the substrate and the extremely high contamination with heavy metals, the studied dumps are unique in Europe in terms of unfavourable life conditions. In total, 2,936 specimens of Oribatida, representing 50 oribatid species, were sampled on 10 dumps and a reference site. Thalli of C. rei act as an island for soil oribatid mites on extremely contaminated post-smelting dumps. Both abundance and species richness of oribatid fauna collected from C. rei thalli were significantly greater than those recorded in the dump's substrate. The pool of oribatid species that was able to persist in extremely high doses of heavy metals was comparatively broad. However, only one species, Tectocepheus velatus, was able to achieve high abundances on all dumps. Three different responses of species (tolerant, sensitive, and indifferent) to heavy-metal contamination were recognised. Redundancy analysis indicated that highly increased levels of heavy metals, as well as K content, C/N ratio, and pH value, were the main factors that influence the composition and distribution of species. The concentrations of heavy metals (both essential elements (zinc) as well as xenobiotics (lead, cadmium) in T. velatus from the most contaminated dumps were not increased compared with those observed in moderately contaminated soils.

The paper presents the results of comprehensive analyses concerning the phenotypic variability of the primary thallus in five chosen Cladonia species in relation to habitat conditions. Morphology and anatomy, as well as the cortex ultrasculpture, of primary squamules were examined in individual specimens from sunny and shady populations of each species. The Mann-Whitney U test and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed several clear correlations between the type of habitat and the organisation of squamules. Significant differences refer mainly to anatomical features, especially to epinecral layer frequency and cortex thickness. On the contrary, examination of the surface ultrasculpture of squamules under SEM did not show any important differences between populations. Regardless of the habitat factors, a full range of cortical surface rugosity in samples from both habitats was noticed, and a high variability often refers to a singular squamule. The results indicate that some features are largely modified by environmental factors and/or depend on the development stage of individual specimens, and examination of these relationships should be the first step towards the evaluation of the taxonomic usefulness of the considered features.

Lichens appear to be essential and effective colonisers of bare substrates including the extremely contaminated wastes of slag dumps. This study examines the metal accumulation capacity of epilithic lichens growing directly on the surface of artificial slag sinters. Four species representing different growth forms, i.e., crustose Candelariella aurella, Lecanora muralis, and Lecidea fuscoatra and fruticose Stereocaulon nanodes, were selected to evaluate the relationships between zinc, lead, cadmium, and nickel contents in their thalli and host substrates. Bioaccumulation factors of examined crustose lichens showed their propensity to hyperaccumulate heavy metals. Contrarily, concentrations of metals in fruticose thalli of S. nanodes were, as a rule, lower than in the corresponding substrates. This indicates that the growth form of thalli and degree of thallus adhesion to the substrate has a significant impact on metal concentrations in lichens colonising post-smelting wastes. Nonlinear regression models described by power functions show that at greater levels of Pb concentration in the substrate, the ability of C. aurella, L. muralis and L. fuscoatra to accumulate the metal experiences a relative decrease, whereas hyperbolic function describes a similar trend in relation to Ni content in S. nanodes. This phenomenon may be an important attribute of lichens that facilitates their colonisation of the surface of slag wastes. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00244-015-0180-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The first and direct result of climate warming has been glacial recession, which stimulated an entire process of landscape (and seascape) changes along the eastern boundary between western Sorkapp Land (devoid of glaciers) and the glaciated peninsula interior. A completely new landscape has appeared there. Also fore-fields of glaciers have been indirectly influenced by the glaciers’ retreat. Some sequences of non-glacial and non-postglacial coastline have been affected by an increase in the geomorphic activity of the sea due to a shorter sea-ice season. During the next few decades, the described trend of environmental-landscape transformation will continue unless the climate cools down. In the case of a progressive warming, the extensive tongues of big glaciers will first retreat and then disappear. The main result of that would be an expansion of non-glacial landscape, vegetation and animal life to the east, into the currently glaciated peninsula’s interior. On the basis of repeated vegetation mapping, significant changes in composition and extent of several plant communities were documented. Decrease in species diversity, leading to a more uniform vegetation, has been observed mainly in dry habitats. In some cases boundaries between plant communities that were clear in the 1980s, have now vanished. Fruticose epigeic lichens, like Flavocetraria nivalis, Cladonia rangiferina, and other species of Cladonia have disappeared from the most part of the study area and their extent is now limited to steep rocky slopes. In some communities increase in abundance of Salix polaris was recorded. The main cause of vegetation changes in Sorkapp Land is the rapidly growing reindeer population in the area.

Certain lichens of the genus Cladonia are effective heavy-metal-tolerant colonisers of strongly contaminated and disturbed sites. Among them, Cladonia cariosa , Cladonia pyxidata and Cladonia rei are the major components of specific cryptogamic assemblages proven to be bioindicators of soil pollution. This study examines the bioaccumulation capacity and heavy metal accumulation pattern of these species in the context of element concentration levels in various parts of their thalli at various vertical distances from the ground. The content of Zn, Pb, Cd, As and Cu in primary squamules, lower and upper parts of secondary thalli (podetia), and fruiting bodies (apothecia), as well as the corresponding substrate, was analysed using the AAS method. The substrate turned out to be the main source of heavy metals in the examined Cladonia lichens. Element accumulation in particular parts of thalli greatly depends on metal enrichment in the immediate vicinity while Cu/Zn ratios for both substrate and lichen samples were very low and comparable within the species. Concentration levels in thalli usually decrease significantly with distance from the substrate. The exception is copper, which content was frequently higher in apothecia than in the upper parts of podetia. Low bioaccumulation factors calculated for the examined Cladonia specimens classified these lichens as weak accumulators of heavy metals. Even given an extremely high level of contaminants in the substrate, the upper parts of thalli are not greatly affected. Consequently, fruticose and erect growth form, in combination with low accumulation capacity and a remarkable decrease in metal content along a vertical gradient, may be an important attribute of Cladonia lichens in the colonisation of a highly contaminated substrate. The content of elements differs significantly between particular parts of Cladonia thalli; this should be taken into account whenever burdens of heavy metals are used as indicators in biomonitoring studies.

Landscapefield mapping at a scale of 1:25,000 was the basic method ofsurveying the study area in the 1980s. Also the extent of the glaciers and theirmarginal zones as well as the sea coastline was mapped. The interpretation of aerialphotographs, including the infrared ones, as well as the analysis of satellite datawere combined with the results offield investigations. The following datasets wereused in the manual delineation of the extent of each glacier in the chosen years:(1) three sheets of a topographic map 1:25,000, edited by the Polish Academy ofSciences in 1987, (2) a topographic map sheet at a scale of 1:100,000, edited by theNorwegian Polar Institute in 2007, (3) ASTER data with 15-m spatial resolutionprovided by NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS), and distributed by the LandProcesses Distributed Active Archive Center (LPDAAC), and (4) SPOT 5Orthophoto with 5-m spatial resolution, acquired on September 1st, 2008, providedby the IPY SPIRIT project. The maps were scanned and georeferenced to a com-mon datum and projection. Changes in glacier surface elevation were estimatedusing digital elevation models. In the early 1980s, extensive vegetation researchwas carried out, using the Braun-Blanquet phytosociological method and a detailedvegetation map at a 1:25,000 scale was constructed. To evaluate the speed anddirection of possible vegetation changes in the area, the aforementioned researchwas repeated in 2008. In both studies data were supported by photographs of themain vegetation types and their changes.

Western Sorkapp Land geological structure is very varied. Pre-Quaternary bedrock consists of three complexes: (1) the most extensive rocks from the Middle Proterozoic to the Silurian, folded in the Caledonian Orogeny: dolomites, phyllites, schists, quartzites, limestones, sandstones, breccias, and others; (2) Early Carboniferous clastic sediments: sandstones, including quartzitic sandstones, siltstones, and shales; and (3) Triassic sedimentary rocks: sandstones and conglomerates. None of these complexes lies horizontally. Loose Quaternary deposits (marine, glacial, fluvial, organic, frost-weathering, slope, including talus and solifluction) are not continuous. The climate is Arctic and marine-type. Average annual temperatures vary from −9 to −3 °C there. Average annual precipitation totals reach 300–500 mm. The mountains in northwest Sorkapp Land remain free of glaciers due to their exposure to relatively warm and dry eastern foehn winds. All the lowlands are unglaciated too. Sorkapp Land glaciation is clearly Arctic-type for two reasons: the common presence of permafrost, and the very weak influence of altitude on the distribution and extent of glaciers. The principal landform types in western Sorkapp Land are coastal lowlands, mountains, and mountain valleys. Nonglacial rivers and lakes (supplied directly by atmospheric precipitation and an active layer of permafrost) play an important part. There are also karst springs and glacial rivers and lakes in the northeast and southeast of the study area. Typically for the High Arctic, the flora of western Sorkapp Land is dominated by cryptogams, mainly lichens—about 170 species—whereas vascular plant flora includes 82 species. Different vegetation types often create complex mosaics, following diverse habitat conditions (bedrock, terrain relief, hydrology, etc.). In a few places the presence of seabird colonies has a local but strong impact on the vegetation.

Climate changes in western Sorkapp Land mirror global fluctuations. The Little Ice Age ended with a cold period in the 1890s. A warm contemporary period began in the early twentieth century. Afterwards, secondary cold and warm climate fluctuations occurred. The most recent fluctuation, since the 1980s, shows a significant warming trend. The mean annual temperature increased by almost 2 °C and the mean annual total precipitation increased by about 60 mm since the 1980s (according to data of the station located 10 km from the study area). Almost all the snow patches melt during the warmest and sunniest summer seasons. The so-called active layer of permafrost had doubled at sites below 100 m of altitude from the 1980s to 2008. Almost all Sorkapp Land glaciers have undergone a continuous recession since the beginning of the twentieth century. Two processes are important for glacier recession: decrease in snow accumulation in firn fields due to the summer thawing of a larger snow mass, and summer thawing of ice on the surface of glacier tongues, which results in a decrease in ice thickness. Thus, the equilibrium-line altitude of a glacier shifts upward, reducing the accumulation zone. Hence, the entire surface of the glaciers undergoes lowering each year, which results in a decrease in their volume and their overall retreat. Since the 1980s, an acceleration of the glaciers’ recession has occurred, causing great changes in landforms and Quaternary. New accumulation landforms appeared in the front of glaciers and around glacier tongues in their marginal zones, that is, on lowlands and valley floors abandoned by glaciers and in their forefields situated below the marginal zones (i.e., beyond the former extent of the glaciers). New erosion landforms, apart from proglacial river incisions, prevail on the steep slopes of valleys and mountain massifs. The cliffs of tidewater glaciers undergo the quickest retreat. Karst processes have intensified due to higher air temperatures and larger quantities of flowing water. Surface and underground streams carry much more water today than in the 1980s. However, the soil is generally drier on the lowlands between the streams today due to the deepening of the active layer above the permafrost. The river and lake network changed the most due to glacier recession. Ice-dammed lakes disappeared due to the recession of glaciers. On the basis of repeated vegetation mapping, significant changes in composition and extent of several plant communities were documented. Decrease in species diversity, leading to a more uniform vegetation, has been observed mainly in dry habitats. In some cases boundaries between plant communities that were clear in the 1980s have now vanished. Fruticose epigeic lichens, such as Flavocetraria nivalis, Cladonia rangiferina, and other species of Cladonia have disappeared from the most part of the study area and their extent is now limited to steep rocky slopes. In some communities increase in abundance of Salix polaris was recorded. The main cause of vegetation changes in Sorkapp Land is the rapidly growing reindeer population in the area.

Osyczka, P. 2011. The genus Cladonia, group Cocciferae, in Poland. - Herzogia 24: 231 -249. A revision of the genus Cladonia, group Cocciferae, is presented for Poland. The morphology, habitat and distribu- tion of the taxa are treated, and the chemical races of each species and their frequency in the country have been indi- cated. The study is based on the examination of approximately 3300 herbarium specimens originating from Poland. Seventeen species have been accepted; the occurrence of the two previously reported species Cladonia bacilliformis and C. cyanipes has not been confirmed. Keys for all species known in Poland are provided. Zusammenfassung: Osyczka, P. 2011. Die Artengruppe Cocciferae der Gattung Cladonia in Polen. - Herzogia 24: 231 -249. Eine Revision der Artengruppe Cocciferae der Gattung Cladonia fur Polen wird vorgelegt. Morphologie, Stand- ortsverhaltnisse und Verbreitung der Taxa werden behandelt sowie die Chemorassen aller Arten einschlieslich ihrer Haufigkeit erlautert. Die Studie basiert auf der Untersuchung von ungefahr 3300 Herbariumsbelegen aus Polen. Siebzehn Arten werden akzeptiert. Das Vorkommen von zwei in der Literatur gemeldeten Arten (Cladonia bacillifor- mis und C. cyanipes) wird nicht bestatigt. Die in Polen vorkommenden Arten werden geschlusselt.

To date, there have only been two endemic species of the lichen genus Porpidia known from the maritime Antarctic. A new endemic species, Porpidia submelinodes Osyczka & Olech, recognized in the South Shetlands and South Orkneys, is described in this paper. The species is primarily characterized by its rusty orange, sorediate thallus, composed of convex, well separated and rounded areoles, and by the absence of lichen secondary products detectable by TLC. The morphology and soralia of this new species correspond to the arctic-alpine and boreal-mountain lichen Porpidia melinodes. The paper also discusses the differences between these two taxa and all Porpidia species reported from Antarctica.

Antarctica's severe climate and its geographical isolation are the factors that hinder the arrival of non-native species by natural means. However, the movement of people and cargo associated with national scientific programs and tourism render Antarctica much more accessible to exotic organisms. Both the transport routes and carriers are varied. The wide range of uses to which timber is put means that it is readily freighted to Antarctic stations. However, it can harbor numerous alien organisms. All the timber materials transported to the "Arctowski" station for the 32nd Polish Antarctic Expedition in the 2007/2008 season were scanned as a potential vector for alien species. This study focuses on the non-lichenized fungi and insects which were found on the timber. Four species of perithecia-forming Ascomycota, five species of corticioid and polyporoid Basidiomycota, four unidentified basidiomycetes taxa in form of sterile mycelia, and two insects belonging to Cerambycidae, were detected. Most of these "hitch-hikers" were connected with the untreated parts of the timber. Their enduring survival in harsh Antarctic conditions is regarded as highly improbable. Nevertheless, some ascocarps frequently contained vital spores, and live insect larvae and imago were found in hibernation. The results also emphasize that such organisms can be accidentally transported to Antarctica and that the elementary rules for the eventual safe transport of non-infected goods should be obeyed and respected.

The recent climate changes combined with intensified human activity in Antarctica are promoting the synanthropization process and increasing the likelihood of alien species establishing in the native communities. Cargo items, expedition members’ equipment and food destined for the 32nd Polish Antarctic Expedition to the “Arctowski” station in the 2007/2008 season were inspected to determine their potential as vectors for alien lichen species. Within the cargo, packaging and foodstuffs scanned, a total of 45 lichen specimens (24 species) were identified. Most of them had been accidentally transported with various timbers. Cargo containers and fresh food were also found to harbour for single specimens. The majority of lichens detected are alien to the Antarctic biota and had never been observed in the region. This paper estimates the potential risk of these lichens establishing themselves in remote southern latitudes. The results emphasize the threat of accidental introduction of alien organisms into Antarctica and the need for taking every precaution to prevent the importation of non-native species to this unique environment.

Material of the genus Lepraria from maritime and continental Antarctica collected in 1986–2007 was studied. Four species were distinguished, L. alpina, L. caerulescens, L. straminea and one putative new taxon provisionally called Lepraria sp. AO. L. caerulescens is tentatively resurrected from the synonyms of L. alpina for the chemotype with atranorin and angardianic/roccellic acid. Lepraria sp. AO is characterized by its granular thallus similar to other members of the L. neglecta group and the presence of two fatty acids, so far unidentified and not known from other members of the genus. Morphological and chemical diagnostic characters of all taxa, their distribution and ecological features are discussed. An updated key for identification of all Antarctic species is provided.

Eighteen species of eleven lichen genera were found on driftwood and worked timber deposited on the beaches in the Hornsund and Billefjorden regions (the west coast of Spitsbergen, Svalbard archipelago). Majority of them indicate low substrate specificity in the high arctic regions. Only three species (Caloplaca spitsbergensis, Lecanora mughicola, L. orae-frigidae) are typical for lignum. Most of the taxa are widespread in Svalbard. Species like: Caloplaca holocarpa, C. spitsbergensis, Protothelenella sphinctrinoidella, Rinodina archaea were sporadically reported till now. Lecanora mughicola was not reported from Svalbard up to the present and this is the first record of the species for the region.

Cladonia crispata var. cetrariiformis has only sporadically been reported from the Tatra Mts so far. However, undoubtedly it is common in this part of the Carpathians. New data about locations of the taxon are presented. Description and ecology of the Polish population are briefly characterized. The paper also contains a distribution map and useful taxonomical remarks concerning this lichen taxon.

The study investigates the genetic differentiation among two subspecies ofAllium ursinumL., namelyA. ursinumsubsp.ursinumand subsp.ucrainicumas well as their putative hybrid that is represented by individuals with intermediate morphology. Inter-Simple Sequence Repeats (ISSR) were applied to determine the status of intermediate morphotypes in terms of their genetic pattern and to assess the level of genetic variability within and between various populations ofA. ursinum. The study comprises 144 specimens from nine populations along the east-west transect in Poland, which includes localities of both subspecies and their putative hybrid. Among the examined populations, 48 bands were amplified, of which 45 were found to be polymorphic. The principal coordinate analysis (PCoA), the neighbour-net analysis and Mantel test showed a strong correlation between genetic variability and geographic distance. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed that a greater proportion of total genetic variation resided within populations rather than among them. The Structure Bayesian clustering analysis revealed the presence of three distinct genetic groups within studied populations, where ‘eastern’ genotypes correspond toA. ursinumsubsp.ucrainicum, and ‘western’ to subsp.ursinum; whereas the third genetic group has the largest share in the individuals occurring at the border of the distribution ranges of both subspecies. The emergence of the third genetic group is probably an effect of hybridization events occurring within the secondary contact zone. Typical morphologically intermediate populations occur only in a relatively narrow geographical zone, but the hybrid zone revealed by molecular markers is actually much wider than it is suggested by the morphological pattern of individuals. The current distribution pattern of both subspecies ofA. ursinumand their hybrid zone is related to the two main directions of postglacial migration ofFagus sylvaticato the area of Poland. The hybrid zone arose as an effect of the secondary contact of two divergent lineages ofA. ursinum.

This study aims to determine the effects of extreme heavy metal contamination and other soil factors on the structure and species richness of pioneer communities on artificial slag-soil substrates. Lichens, bryophytes, and vascular plants were examined in study plots and chemical properties of corresponding substrate samples were analyzed. Species responses to soil factors were identified by detrended correspondence analysis with interpretation of ordination axes and identification of significant soil parameters using linear mixed-effects models. The interrelationships between species richness and soil factors were evaluated by generalized linear mixed-effects model with Poisson error distribution. Three different responses to substrate contamination were recognized: species most tolerant and favored by strong contamination, less resistant species appearing only on less contaminated dumps and cryptogams indifferent to heavy metal contamination and abundant on all dumps. The species richness of lichens and vascular plants respond differently in relation to heavy metal contamination. Our results indicate that certain cryptogamic species are indifferent to enormous contamination and well adapted to slag substrate. In contrast, highly elevated levels of heavy metals negatively affect vascular plant species richness. Assemblages of pioneer cryptogams are an important element in the natural regeneration of post-smelting wastes and should be taken into account when reclamation activities are planned.

Conventional reclamation interventions of post smelting slag dumps being undertaken so far either failed or produced poor results. Certain lichens, especially of the genus Cladonia, are known as effective colonisers of bare ground in anthropogenic habitats. The paper presents preliminary results of the experiment aimed at the evaluation of lichen usefulness in reclamation interventions. The cultivation in vivo involving transplantation of lichens directly on slag substrate was established in 2015. Five species, i.e. Cladonia rei, C. cariosa, C. pyxidata, C. subulata, C. macilenta, were transplanted into 32 cuvettes filled with sterilised slag substrate. The sample weight of 2 and 6 g were used and half of cuvettes were regularly supplied with 2 % malt solution. The first important symptoms at the present stage of the experiment are as follow: the growth of thalli has appeared only in the case of first three species; C. rei shows the most effective development; cuvettes with 6 g sample weight are characterized by higher coverage of fresh lichen thalli; lichen biomass are visually higher in cuvettes treated with malt solution. The results give us reason to believe that lichens could be successfully used as an alternative element during planning of slag dumps reclamation in the future.

Rola, K., Osyczka, P. & Nobis, M. 2014. Cryptogamic communities dominated by the lichen Cladonia rei — a case study of Polish post-smelting dumps in a worldwide context. — Herzogia 27: 121–135. Pioneer vegetation is frequently characterised by a high proportion of cryptogamic species, both in natural sites and anthropogenic and disturbed habitats. This study focuses on pioneer communities developing in strongly affected and contaminated sites of post-smelting dumps in Poland. Lichens, bryophytes and vascular plants were examined in study plots within homogenous patches of vegetation. Phytosociological data on cryptogamic associations, with the lichen Cladonia rei as the predominant species, from anthropogenic habitats of Germany and sand dunes in Ukraine were used for comparative purposes. Hierarchical cluster analysis and non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) were employed to investigate cryptogamic vegetation differentiation and detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) was used to identify...

This study aims to determine changes in the structure of cryptogamic vegetation of poor psammophilous grassland along a pollution gradient near a zinc smelter to evaluate the potential of species assemblages as bioindicators of soil condition. Lichens and bryophytes were examined in study plots along six transects in four distance zones, and the physicochemical properties of corresponding soil samples were analysed. Four different responses of species to substrate contamination were identified, with a distinct group of species resistant to and favoured by metal contamination. Although species richness decreases as one approaches the smelter, the gradual replacement of certain sensitive species by resistant ones was observed along the pollution gradient. The results enabled us to develop a useful tool to diagnose strongly polluted sites. Two different cryptogamic assemblages of well-recognised key species characteristic for strongly polluted and lightly polluted sites were distinguished. We conclude that cryptogamic community structure clearly corresponds to the degree of soil contamination, thus demonstrating high bioindicative value. The study confirmed the high relevance of the community approach in metal pollution biomonitoring.