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Intra-player movement pattern variability in baseball pitching has been demonstrated to affect metrics of performance and injury risk. It is currently unknown how many pitches are necessary to properly accommodate for intra-player variability for an appropriately representative analysis of a pitcher's throwing mechanics. The purpose of this study was to establish a standard for how many fastball pitches are necessary to account for within and between-individual pitching variability for fastballs thrown by youth athletes. Motion capture data were collected for seven fastballs thrown by 17 male youth pitchers (age = 13.5 ± 1.07 years) using a 3D motion analysis system, incorporating 10-cameras. Maximum shoulder distraction force (MSDF) and maximum elbow valgus torque (MEVT) were compiled from pitching reports previously generated using Visual 3D and the Qualisys baseball module. Spearman-Brown prophecy formula was used to calculate how many pitches were required to account for within and between subject variability for throwing arm metrics analyzed. Results showed that 2, 4, and 19 fastballs are needed to accurately report MSDF and MEVT metrics with 90%, 95%, and 99% reliability, respectively. The results of this study provide the first methodological guidelines for how to account for the factor of fastball pitch variability in youth baseball biomechanics studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent biomechanical evidence suggests that shoulder impingement syndrome (SIS) is closely linked with altered core-shoulder kinetic chain, resulting pain, altered external shoulder muscle activation, and external muscle weakness. We aimed to compare the effects of conventional isolated shoulder exercise (ISE) and core-shoulder chain exercises (CCE) during isokinetic shoulder rotation in baseball pitchers with SIS. Forty male college baseball pitchers with SIS were randomly allocated to ISE and CCE groups and they performed the exercises 3 times a week for 6 weeks. The standardised numerical pain rating scale (NPRS), shoulder pain and disability index (SPADI), electromyography (EMG) amplitude, and concentric (CON) and eccentric (ECC) torques were measured. Substantial improvements in NPRS and SPADI scores were observed after CCE compared to ISE (p ≤ 0.046). Internal oblique/transversus abdominis, rectus abdominis, external oblique, serratus anterior, and infraspinatus muscle activation were significantly higher after CCE than ISE (p ≤ 0.033). CON and ECC torques were higher after CCE than ISE (p ≤ 0.002). The present findings demonstrated superior therapeutic effects of CCE in improving pain, disability level, shoulder muscle activation, and torque (muscle strength) in baseball pitchers with SIS compared to the conventional ISE, highlighting the importance of the chain exercise concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Even a seasoned baseball pitcher has difficulty throwing a ball to the same location repeatedly. Such movement variability is assumed to come from neural noise, which causes the muscle activity's amplitude to fluctuate between movements. We explored an alternative source of noise, namely the variability in the muscle activity's timing. We constructed a computational model of a shoulder controlled by two muscles then varied the muscle activity's amplitude and timing independently to predict their effect on the shoulder's force. These predictions were then tested by recording the muscle activity from human participants who used their shoulder to produce periodic forces. The force's variability was explained more accurately by timing noise, suggesting that variable motor timing could play an important role in determining movement precision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The baseball statistic "Wins Above Replacement" (WAR) has emerged as one of the most popular evaluation metrics. But it is not readily observed and tabulated; WAR is an estimate of a parameter in a vaguely defined model with all its attendant assumptions. Industry-standard models of WAR for starting pitchers from FanGraphs and Baseball Reference all assume that season-long averages are sufficient statistics for a pitcher's performance. This provides an invalid mathematical foundation for many reasons, especially because WAR should not be linear with respect to any counting statistic. To repair this defect, as well as many others, we devise a new measure, Grid WAR, which accurately estimates a starting pitcher's WAR on a per-game basis. The convexity of Grid WAR diminishes the impact of "blow-up" games and up-weights exceptional games, raising the valuation of pitchers like Sandy Koufax, Whitey Ford, and Catfish Hunter who exhibit fundamental game-by-game variance. Although Grid WAR is designed to accurately measure historical performance, it has predictive value insofar as a pitcher's Grid WAR is better than Fangraphs' FIP WAR at predicting future performance. Finally, at https://gridwar.xyz we host a Shiny app which displays the Grid WAR results of each MLB game since 1952, including career, season, and game level results, which updates automatically every morning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In baseball pitchers, the association of fatigue with overuse injury and decline in pitching performance has been discussed frequently, but the scientific data concerning their interrelationships have been inconsistently reported. The purpose of this narrative review is to summarize and explore the evidence regarding acute changes in pitching biomechanics and performance from repetitive throwing motions among baseball pitchers. Muscle fatigue from repetitive throwing not only decreases muscle output but also disturbs the kinetic chain of baseball pitching. In addition, repetitive throwing can impair the proprioceptive and kinesthetic functions needed for accurate joint position sense in the shoulder and elbow. Consequently, these changes negatively affect ball velocity and pitching accuracy, two critical aspects of overall pitching performance. Moreover, the cumulative loading caused by fatigue contributes to the high prevalence of overuse injuries, particularly in the elbow and shoulder joints. Thus it is important to comprehensively understand the relationships among changed pitching mechanics, deteriorated performance, and musculoskeletal injury originating from muscle fatigue due to repetitive pitching. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Trunk and shoulder strength are consistently shown to be involved in performance limitations, as well as contributing to stability, power output, and reducing the risk of injury. Although their biomechanical interaction is a critical aspect for athletes, there is limited research on the relationship between trunk and shoulder strength in sports where upper body mechanics are critical for optimal performance. Purpose: This study examined the differences and relationships between trunk rotational strength and shoulder rotational strength among athletes participating in mixed martial arts (MMA), tennis, swimming, and baseball. Methods: Maximal voluntary contraction tests were performed to evaluate strength of 39 professional adult male athletes from disciplines of MMA (n = 6), tennis (n = 11), swimming (n = 11) and baseball (n = 11). Peak force data were used in sports comparison and relationship analysis between trunk and shoulder rotation strength parameters. Results: The findings revealed a complex and significant relationship between trunk and shoulder strength, with unique patterns for each athletic discipline. Tennis players exhibited a strong correlation between trunk bilateral differences and internal shoulder rotation, while other disciplines demonstrated a more balanced use of trunk asymmetry. Swimmers displayed the best interactions between trunk and shoulder overall, emphasizing the aquatic environment's biomechanical demands. In MMA, the strongest correlation was between shoulder internal and external rotation with the trunk, mainly due to the number of defensive movements in addition to offensive ones. Baseball pitchers showed a significant correlation between internal/external shoulder rotation strength ratio and trunk asymmetry. Conclusion: While no differences in peak force variables were found, unique relationships between trunk and shoulder rotational performance were discovered. The results suggest a long-term sport-specific adaptation of the trunk-shoulder interaction in sports that require upper limb power movements. It seems, that the relationship between the various parameters of trunk and shoulder was influenced by the movement stereotype of each sport. Therefore, recognition of sport-specific interactions is critical to the development of effective training programs that enhance performance and potentially reduce injury risk in different sports. Researchers and practitioners should focus on longitudinally monitoring fluctuations in TRS and SRS relationships throughout each sport season and examining potential associations with injury incidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores free agent transactions of the Korea Baseball Organization from 2000 to 2018. It examines whether player mobility patterns differ across free agent pitchers and hitters. The probability of free agent pitchers transferring increases with the pitching position of the starting or closer pitcher. The probability of transfer for a hitter is negatively associated with age and left-handedness. The inertia of staying with the current team increases when substantial signing bonuses are paid to the free agent pitcher. A strong contract year affects the hitter mobility model, with a higher probability of transfer and a greater contribution to team wins in the final year before free agency. The longer a free agent's contract, the higher the probability of them moving. A huge increase in the annual salary one year before free agent eligibility hinders the movement of hitters, whereas financial compensation does not constrain pitchers' move. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Injuries in younger baseball athletes continue to increase despite work characterizing risk factors. Three‐dimensional (3D) motion capture may identify suboptimal pitching mechanics that predispose an athlete to injury, but 3D‐motion analysis is often inaccessible. Thus, there is a gap between the current biomechanics literature and its practical application in young athletes. The current study aims to assess the reliability of the pitch efficiency rating (PER) as a systematic tool to evaluate throwing mechanics in developing baseball pitchers. Objective: To determine the feasibility of application and reliability of a novel, scientifically informed tool (PER) for the assessment of pitching mechanics. Design: Reliability study using Bland–Altman methods for assessing agreement between two raters. Setting: Academic medical center through community outreach. Participants: Pitching mechanics were assessed and rated with the PER for 40 athletes (26 high school, 14 Division III), average age 19.0 years old (range 15.3–23.7 years old). Interventions: N/A. Main Outcome Measures: Interrater and intrarater reliability as calculated by intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Results: For initial readings comparing interrater reliability between Rater 1 and Rater 2, the ICC was calculated at 0.80 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.66–0.89) and 0.76 (95% CI 0.60–0.86) for the second set of ratings. Regarding intrarater reliability across reads, ICC was found to be 0.63 (95% CI 0.43–0.79) for Rater 1, and 0.91 for Rater 2 (95% CI 0.85–0.95). Conclusions: The present study introduces the PER as a potential tool for evaluating pitching mechanics. However, the intrarater reliability of the PER did not meet preestablished criteria in one of the two pilot raters. Further study is needed to continue to assess the reliability of the tool across diverse demographics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stakeholder frameworks document the nature of sport franchise owners' interactions with local residents, but there has been little attention on understanding why interactions develop a contentious or collaborative tenor. There has also been little emphasis on understanding whether and how interactions affect revenue-side outcomes. This paper uses the team identification literature to buttress the idea that owners are meaningful points of attachment for fans. It also uses consumer political ideology scholarship to explain that owners' ideologies—never more visible than today—are important predictors of consumption. The paper proposes and tests a series of hypotheses about the effect of owners' and residents' ideological divergence on attendance and spending. Similar ideologies between residents and long-tenured owners were associated with about $8–$10 more spending per fan per game, as well as 2,400–3,950 more fans per game. Implications for academics and practitioners are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Excessive shoulder anterior force has been implicated in pathology of the rotator cuff in little league and professional baseball pitchers; in particular, anterior laxity, posterior stiffness, and glenohumeral joint impingement. Distinctly characterized motions associated with excessive shoulder anterior force remain poorly understood. Methods: High school and professional pitchers were instructed to throw fastballs while being evaluated with 3D motion capture (480 Hz). A supplementary random forest model was designed and implemented to identify the most important features for regressing to shoulder anterior force, with subsequent standardized regression coefficients to quantify directionality. Results: 130 high school pitchers (16.3 ± 1.2 yrs; 179.9 ± 7.7 cm; 74.5 ± 12.0 kg) and 322 professionals (21.9 ± 2.1 yrs; 189.7 ± 5.7 cm; 94.8 ± 9.5 kg) were included. Random forest models determined nearly all the variance for professional pitchers (R2 = 0.96), and less than half for high school pitchers (R2 = 0.41). Important predictors of shoulder anterior force in high school pitchers included: trunk flexion at maximum shoulder external rotation (MER) (X.IncMSE = 2.4, β = −0.23, p < 0.001), shoulder external rotation at ball release (BR)(X.IncMSE = 1.7, β = −0.34, p < 0.001), and shoulder abduction at BR (X.IncMSE = 3.1, β = 0.17, p < 0.001). In professional pitchers, shoulder horizontal adduction at foot contact (FC) was the highest predictor (X.IncMSE = 13.9, β = 0.50, p < 0.001), followed by shoulder external rotation at FC (X.IncMSE = 3.6, β = 0.26, p < 0.001), and maximum elbow extension velocity (X.IncMSE = 8.5, β = 0.19, p < 0.001). Conclusion: A random forest model successfully selected a subset of features that accounted for the majority of variance in shoulder anterior force for professional pitchers; however, less than half of the variance was accounted for in high school pitchers. Temporal and kinematic movements at the shoulder were prominent predictors of shoulder anterior force for both groups. Clinical relevance: : Our statistical model successfully identified a combination of features with the ability to adequately explain the majority of variance in anterior shoulder force among high school and professional pitchers. To minimize shoulder anterior force, high school pitchers should emphasize decreased shoulder abduction at BR, while professionals can decrease shoulder horizontal adduction at FC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article provides a detailed account of the Sanford Lookouts' successful 1939 season in the Florida State League (FSL). The team, led by owner Charles Bradshaw and player-manager Dale Alexander, made significant improvements from the previous season and became one of the greatest minor league teams in history. They recruited talented players, including pitcher Harry "Dopey" Dean, who won seventeen consecutive games without a loss. The Lookouts won the league championship and went on to become the best Class D team in the southeast. However, their success was short-lived, and they faced financial difficulties in subsequent seasons. The article concludes by mentioning the team's intermittent presence in the FSL until 1960 and their ranking as the fourth-best Class D team in the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues' top 100 minor league teams of all time. [Extracted from the article]

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of a low volume anaerobic training session, electrical stimulation, cupping therapy, and sequential compression for decreasing blood lactate in collegiate pitchers after pitching. Methods: 20 healthy collegiate baseball pitchers consented to participate in this study as a convenience sample (age 21.6 ± 1.90 years; height 175.61 ± 21.41 cm; mass 80.33 ± 8.07 kg). A total of 17 participants completed the study. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the four interventions and rotated between interventions in one-week increments. The interventions used were a low volume anaerobic training session, electrical stimulation, cupping therapy, and sequential compression. The a low volume anaerobic training session, electrical stimulation, cupping therapy, and sequential compression for decreasing blood lactate in collegiate pitchers after pitching was assessed using a factorial repeated measures ANOVA (with two within-subject factors: treatment and time of measurement). The assumption for sphericity was examined based on Mauchly's test, and where the assumption was violated ANOVA output was assessed based on Greenhouse-Geisse's correction (For epsilon <=0.75) or Huynh-Feldt's correction (for epsilon>0.75). Post-hoc pairwise analyses with Bonferroni corrections were performed for statistically significant findings, with all assessments based on the 5% significance level. Results: While blood lactate levels increased with a low volume anaerobic training session (mean difference = 0.7120 p=0.57), there were statistically significant decreases immediately after the intervention for sequential (mean difference =-2.64, p=0.03) and cupping therapy (mean difference =--2.94, p<0.001). While there was a decrease in blood lactate levels following electrical stimulation, this decrease was not statistically significant (mean difference =-0.712, p=0.26). Conclusion: Blood lactate levels decreased in the period immediately following pitching with the use of cupping and sequential compression. These benefits were not seen with a low volume anaerobic training session and electrical stimulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of major league baseball's most enduring trends over its one and a half centuries has been the distribution of the innings workload among an ever-increasing number of pitchers. When [...]

I still think relief pitchers are slighted or faintly patronized in most fans' and writers' consideration. Ask somebody to pick an all-time or all-decade lineup for his favorite team or [...]

As a baseball game progresses, batters appear to perform better the more times they face a particular pitcher. The apparent drop-off in pitcher performance from one time through the order to the next, known as the Time Through the Order Penalty (TTOP), is often attributed to within-game batter learning. Although the TTOP has largely been accepted within baseball and influences many managers' in-game decision making, we argue that existing approaches of estimating the size of the TTOP cannot disentangle continuous evolution in pitcher performance over the course of the game from discontinuities between successive times through the order. Using a Bayesian multinomial regression model, we find that, after adjusting for confounders like batter and pitcher quality, handedness, and home field advantage, there is little evidence of strong discontinuity in pitcher performance between times through the order. Our analysis suggests that the start of the third time through the order should not be viewed as a special cutoff point in deciding whether to pull a starting pitcher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are no reports investigating the relationship between shoulder range of motion (ROM) and pitching elbow torque in junior high school pitchers. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the factors associated with medial elbow torque in this population. Sixty-three junior high school baseball pitchers were recruited for this study. The participants completed a questionnaire and passive ROM measurements of shoulder abduction and horizontal adduction. All pitchers pitched three fastballs at maximum effort while wearing a wireless sensor recording pitching mechanics and elbow valgus torque for each pitch. Age (r = 0.65, p < 0.001), height (r = 0.83, p < 0.001), body weight (r = 0.82, p < 0.001), BMI (r = 0.60, p < 0.001), and ball velocity (r = 0.80, p < 0.001) were significantly positively correlated with elbow valgus torque. Participants were divided into two groups based on elbow valgus torque, >30 (high torque [HT]) and <30 N·m (low torque [LT]). Age, height, body weight, BMI, and ball velocity were significantly higher in the HT group than in the LT group. The difference between dominant and non-dominant shoulder horizontal adduction ROM was 5.3 ± 9.3° and 1.0 ± 6.4° in the HT and LT groups, respectively, which was also significantly different. Ball velocity, age, larger physique, and increased restriction of the dominant shoulder's horizontal adduction ROM were associated with higher medial elbow torque in junior high school pitchers. This suggests that improving the dominant shoulder's horizontal adduction ROM contributes to preventing elbow injuries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]