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Context: The planting and use of leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) to fatten cattle is both practical and profitable for smallholder farmers in West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Currently smallholder farmers feed leucaena as the primary component of a cattle fattening diet. However, the high protein content in leucaena could be more effectively used if combined with a fermentable energy source, such as cassava (Manihot utilissima). Aim: An experiment was conducted to determine the ratio of leucaena to cassava corresponding to largest average daily gain and most efficient feed conversion for gain. Methods: Thirty growing male Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) ~18 months of age with an initial live weight of 164 ± 1.8 kg (mean ± s.e.) were allocated to one of six experimental treatments in a randomised block design. Bulls were held in individual stalls and had access to experimental diets and water ad libitum. The diets were 20% rice straw + 80% leucaena hay (A), 20% rice straw + 65% leucaena hay + 15% cassava meal (B), 20% rice straw + 50% leucaena hay + 30% cassava meal (C), 20% rice straw + 35% leucaena hay + 45% cassava meal (D), 20% rice straw + 20% leucaena hay + 60% cassava meal (E) and 20% rice straw + 5% leucaena hay + 75% cassava meal (F). A mineral mix was provided at 1% DM of total diet and urea was added to the cassava meal at 2% DM. In consideration of animal welfare concerns, the trial was concluded on Day 77 due to observations indicating that bulls receiving the highest level of cassava (F) were experiencing significant weight loss. Key results: The optimum level of inclusion of cassava was 29.5% (based on the quadratic response curve) but there was little difference in average daily gain up to 45% inclusion. Feeding a high level of cassava meal (more than 45% of diet) reduced feed intake, average daily gain and income over feed cost. Conclusion: Cassava meal can be successfully and profitably incorporated into leucaena-based rations of Bali bulls for fattening. Implications: Formulating rations with cassava meal and leucaena can be economically beneficial in cattle fattening systems. Supplementing Bali cattle rations in leucaena-based smallholdings with locally available cassava as an energy source, provides an opportunity to increase cattle live weight gain, extend the utilisation of leucaena and increase farmer profitability. Weight gain and profitability were maximised up to 45% cassava, but higher levels reduced feed intake, average daily gain and income over feed costs. Feeding cassava meal to leucaena-based diets is an important strategy to preserve leucaena as well as to increase profitability and meat production nationally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Formulating diets using agro-industrial by-product concentrates to increase the growth performance and cost efficiency of Ongole crossbred bulls. Aims. This study was conducted to evaluate the inclusion of agro-industrial by-products of dried cassava powder (DCP), mixed copra meal (CM), palm kernel cake (PKC) and soybean hull (SBH) into rations at low and high levels of feeding on bull liveweight gain and farmer profitability. Methods. Fifty Ongole crossbred bulls with an initial bodyweight (BW) of 227 ± 66.5 kg and aged between 12 and 18 months, were arranged in a randomised complete-block design of five treatments, with 10 heads per treatment. The control group (T0) was provided the current feeding system (CFS) fed ad libitum. The supplemented treatments consisted of CFS ad libitum + concentrate (50% DCP, 25% CM, 25% PKC) at 1% BW/day (T1), CFS ad libitum + concentrate (50% DCP, 25% CM, 25% SBH) at 1% BW/day (T2), CFS ad libitum + concentrate (50% DCP, 25% CM, 25% PKC) at 2% BW/day (T3), CFS ad libitum + concentrate (50% DCP, 25% CM, 25% SBH) at 2% BW/day (T4). The experiment was conducted for 12 weeks. Key results. The BW gain over 12 weeks (kg) for T0, T1, T2, T3 and T4 was 39.5, 56.2, 68.9, 57.5 and 62.1 kg respectively. The income over feed cost was significantly higher in T2. Conclusions. Supplementation with by-products increased bull liveweight gain compared with current feeding practices. A concentrate supplementation of DCP mixed with CM and SBH at 1% BW/day was the most effective and profitable supplementation method to increase income of farmers in this district and there was no advantage of increasing the level of supplement. Implications. A combination of DCP, CM and SBH to form a concentrate supplement and fed at 1% BW/day will increase bull liveweight gain and income of farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Formulating supplements with Gliricidia sepium leaf meal (GLM) and cassava powder to promote liveweight gain of Ongole bulls. Aims: This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of using GLM as a substitute for copra meal (CM) or soybean hulls (SBH) in a concentrate containing dry cassava powder (DCP) on the average daily gain of Ongole bulls and income over feed cost. Methods: Forty Ongole bulls were allocated in a randomised block design with 10 head per treatment. The control group (R0) was provided the current feeding system (CFS) fed ad libitum , with supplemented treatments consisting of the current feeding system fed ad libitum + 1% liveweight (on approximate DM basis)/day of three different concentrate supplement diets (R1, R2 and R3). R1 concentrate contained 50% DCP, 25% CM and 25% SBH; R2 was 50% DCP, 25% GLM and 25% SBH; and R3 was 50% DCP, 25% CM and 25% GLM. The bulls belonged to cooperative smallholder farmers in the Banaran and Bleberan villages, Playen Subdistrict, Gunungkidul Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The experiment was performed for 12 weeks from 22 December 2018 to 16 March 2019. Key results: The average weight gain of bulls (kg/head) in the treatments R0, R1, R2 and R3 were 0.31, 0.75, 0.61 and 0.62, respectively. The income over feed cost of supplement treatments R1, R2 and R3 was double that of the control (R0). Conclusions: It was concluded that GLM can replace the use of SBH and CM in a cassava-based supplement and increase the income of farmers in this district. Implications: Cassava powder can be combined with GLM to form a concentrate that increases the average weight gain of Ongole bulls and income of farmers. Formulating cattle rations in smallholder enterprises to include locally available forages provides an opportunity to increase beef cattle productivity with a resultant increase in farmer profitability. The evaluation of supplementing locally available cassava and Gliriicidia sepium leaf meal and traditional supplements into village enterprises demonstrated that all supplementation increased liveweight gain and profitability. Feeding formulated rations using local ingredients is an important strategy to markedly increase profitability and to increase meat production globally. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Formulating rations with high energy and protein feeds such as cassava tuber and gliricidia, is an important strategy to increase liveweight gain (LWG) of bulls and improve profitability of smallholder farmers in Indonesia. Aims: Two on-farm experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of increasing the supplementation level of a mixture of cassava (Manihot esculenta) whole root tuber powder and fresh gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium) on feed intake and LWG of Ongole and Bali bulls given fresh corn stover and elephant grass, respectively. Methods: Two experiments were conducted, each with five treatments: a basal diet of fresh corn stover (Experiment 1 for Ongole bulls) or elephant grass (Experiment 2 for Bali bulls) fed ad libitum or this diet supplemented with a combination of cassava tuber (whole root tuber including peel, sun-dried and ground) and fresh, chopped gliricidia (1:1) on estimated dry matter (DM) basis, at DM levels of 0.4, 0.8, 1,2 and 1.6% liveweight (LW)/day. Each experiment was run for 18 weeks, consisting of a two week adaptation and 16 week experimental period. Parameters measured included basal DM intake, supplement DM intake, total DM intake, total water intake, faecal pH, daily LWG, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and income over feed cost (IOFC). Key results: Increasing supplement level linearly (P < 0.05) decreased basal diet intake, but linearly increased total DM intake and LWG (P < 0.05) in both breeds. Basal diet DM intake was reduced at the rate of 0.43 kg/kg of supplement DM consumed for both Ongole and Bali bulls. Water intake and faecal pH were not affected (P > 0.05) by increasing supplement intake. Inclusion of cassava tuber and gliricidia supplement up to 1.6% LW/day, increased total feed DM intake (up to 3.28 and 3.18% LW/day, for Ongole and Bali bulls, respectively) and LWG (maximum Ongole bulls 0.69 kg/day and Bali bulls 0.46 kg/day). Daily income over feed cost (IOFC) increased significantly (P < 0.05) in association with increased supplement intake in both Experiments 1 and 2. Using the derived model without supplementation, the value of IOFC was only IDR 7802/day and IDR 7687/day, for Experiments 1 and 2, respectively. The highest IOFC was achieved at a supplement intake of 1.6% LW/day with values of IDR 13 949/day and IDR 12 543/day for Experiments 1 and 2 respectively. Conclusions: The addition of a cassava tuber and gliricidia mixture up to 1.6% LW/day increased LWG and profit for smallholders fattening bulls. Implications: Formulating a ration with cassava tuber and gliricidia can be economically beneficial in cattle fattening systems in Indonesia. Smallholder enterprises use locally available forages, but inclusion of cassava tuber and gliricidia supplement could promote bull liveweight gain and time to market. Two separate on-farm experiments were conducted to evaluate increasing supplementation levels of a cassava tuber and gliricidia. Ongole and Bali bulls increased their feed intake, weight gain and feed efficiency through supplementation up to the level 1.6%W/day. Increased supplement intake was associated with a doubling of daily income over food costs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the use of pasture attributes to control daily intake and diet quality during progressive defoliation on pastures of Axonopus catarinensis. Three consecutive 12-day grazing treatments of progressive defoliation were conducted with Brahman cross-steers. Daily forage intake and defoliation dynamics were assessed using a pasture-based method. The treatments differed in initial sward height (33, 44 and 61 cm) and herbage mass (1030, 1740 and 2240 kg ha−1). The post-grazing residual sward height, at which forage intake decreased, appeared to increase with the initial sward height (12·3, 14·6 and 15·5 cm). Steers grazed up to four distinctive grazing strata in all treatments. The depth and herbage mass content of the top grazing stratum were at least five times higher than the lower grazing strata in all treatments. This explains why forage intake decreased when the top grazing stratum was removed in approximately 93% of the pasture area in all treatments, equivalent to approximately 7% of the pasture area remaining ungrazed. We conclude that the residual ungrazed area of the pasture, rather than residual sward height, can be used to develop grazing management strategies to control forage intake and diet quality in a wide range of pasture conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the long-term growth of male and female Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) fed a diet consisting solely of Sesbania grandiflora (sesbania) or sesbania with rice bran. Twelve male (71.6 ± 2.2 kg mean liveweight and standard error of the mean; LW) and six female (80.3 ± 2.8 kg LW) weaned Bali cattle, ~6 months of age at the commencement were used in this experiment. LW, wither height (WH), hip height and chest circumference (girth) were measured from ~6 to 27 months of age. Dry matter intake and the concentration of glucose, urea and insulin-like growth factor-1 in the plasma were measured at ~9, 18 and 27 months of age. There was no difference in LW gain of male and female Bali cattle between 6 and 18 months of age but males had a greater average LW gain (0.40 kg/day) than females (0.22 kg/day) between 18 and 27 months of age. Overall females displayed a curvilinear growth path in LW, WH and girth between 6 and 27 months of age, while males displayed a linear growth path in LW and girth but curvilinear in WH over the same age. Dry matter intake did not differ with stage of development or between male and female cattle. The plasma urea concentration declined in male Bali cattle with stage of development but was constant in female cattle across the experiment. The concentration of insulin-like growth factor-1 in the plasma increased with age and tended to be greater in male (268 ng/mL) than female (222 ng/mL) Bali cattle. In conclusion, Bali cattle display sexual dimorphism in growth after ~18 months of age, which is important to consider when developing feeding strategies across the full growth path. The live weight gain (LWG) of male Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) remained relatively constant at ~0.4 kg/day from 12 to 27 months of age, whereas there was a sharp decrease in LWG of females after 18 months of age compared with LWG from 6 to 18 months of age. This demonstrates the sexually dimorphic control of post-pubertal growth in Bali cattle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A series of liveweight gain (LWG), feed and water intake and digestibility experiments were conducted across eastern Indonesia. Thirty-six datasets of LWG, feed and water intake, and diet characteristics were used to determine the nutritional requirements of growing Bali cattle fed a wide range of diets that varied in crude protein content and apparent dry matter digestibility. Regression of average daily LWG against estimated metabolisable energy (ME) intake was conducted, and the ME requirements for maintenance of liveweight (LW, 0 kg/day) and LWG were determined. It was estimated that the ME required to maintain LW of this class of Bali cattle, across the range of diets evaluated, was 0.47 MJ ME/kg LW0.75.day and that 34 MJ ME was required for each kg LWG, or 29 g LWG/MJ ME. The relationship between estimated ME intake and LWG was not affected by the crude protein content of the diet. The data demonstrate that ME requirements for maintenance of LW of Bali cattle are comparable with values for other cattle species, but that this class of Bali cattle is generally less efficient in the use of ME for LWG across the range of diets evaluated. Indigenous cattle species may possess traits that are beneficial in the face of declining global ruminant feed availability. The energy requirements for maintenance and gain of liveweight of Bali cattle, indigenous to Indonesia, were determined across a range of diets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this experiment was to test the effectiveness of two diets in increasing liveweight (LW) and body condition score (BCS) of Brahman cows in Indonesia. Diets were based on rice straw, with additional energy and nitrogen (N) provided in the form of onggok (a cassava by-product) plus urea or a tree legume. Thirty mature, non-pregnant, non-lactating Brahman crossbred cows (288 kg LW, BCS 2/5) were allocated to one of two treatment groups. Cows were kept in individual pens for 21 weeks and offered one of two diets; (1) urea-supplemented rice straw ad libitum plus 10 g onggok DM/kg LW.day, or (2) untreated rice straw ad libitum plus 5 g onggok DM/kg LW.day and 5 g Gliricidia sepium DM/kg LW.day. The urea supplement provided no advantages over using locally available N sources such as gliricidia, with both supplement types meeting the rumen-degradable N requirements of the cows. Cows on both diets gained weight at a similar rate (0.19 kg/day) for the first 15 weeks of the experiment. Liveweight gain in Weeks 16-21 was only 0.04 kg/day, despite an increase in total feed intake and energy content of the diets compared with Weeks 1-15. Liveweight of cows stabilised during Weeks 16-21 at 304 kg, BCS 2.2. While our results demonstrate that Brahman cows can maintain LW on rice straw-based diets, they may not be able to maintain a BCS sufficient for good reproduction rates (i.e. BCS 3 or higher on 1-5 scale). Better quality diets containing higher levels of energy are required for cows to gain and maintain a suitable BCS. Indonesian smallholder farmers require cost-effective and accessible supplements to increase the liveweight and body condition score of Brahman cows fed rice straw-based diets. Cows fed rice straw supplemented with cassava by-products plus urea or a tree legume, were able to gain liveweight and maintain a body condition score of 2.2 on a 1-5 scale. Better supplementation strategies are required for cows to maintain a higher body condition score. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this research was to compare different feeding strategies to increase the weight and body condition score (BCS) of Ongole (Bos indicus) and Bali (Bos javanicus) cows kept by smallholder farmers in Indonesia. Thirty mature, non-pregnant, non-lactating Ongole and Bali cows were allocated to one of three treatment groups in a randomised block design, with five cows of each breed per treatment. The experiment consisted of a 2-week adaptation period and 24-week experimental period. In Weeks 1-17 cows were offered one of three diets; rice straw ad libitum plus gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium) at 3 g DM/kg W.day (RSG3), rice straw at 10 g DM/kg W.day plus gliricidia at 10 g DM/kg W.day, or elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) ad libitum. During Weeks 18-24 the cows previously fed the RSG3 diet were offered rice straw ad libitum plus rice bran at 10 g DM/kg W.day. There was no change to diets of the other groups. Feeding untreated rice straw plus gliricidia or rice bran only provided enough metabolisable energy for maintenance of both breeds. Ongole and Bali cows consuming elephant grass gained weight at 0.25 and 0.33 kg/day, respectively. However, even at these higher growth rates it would still take ~4-6 months for cows to gain 1 BCS unit (1-5 scale). Maintaining a good BCS would be a better management strategy. The reproductive performance of cows can be improved through better nutrition. We evaluated the potential of village-based diets to increase the weight and condition of cows in a short period of time, but none of the diets contained enough metabolisable energy or protein for high liveweight gains. Increasing condition of cows quickly is difficult within village-based systems and a more efficient strategy would be to maintain condition of cows during pregnancy and lactation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two experiments were conducted with weaned entire male Bali cattle (Bos javanicus) between 6 and 12 months of age. A randomised block design was used in both experiments, which consisted of four treatments (diets), with five replicates (animals) per treatment. In both experiments, the average daily liveweight gain (LWG), feed and water intake and diet digestibility were determined over 8 or 10 weeks, with chest girth and wither height measured at the commencement and end of the experiments. In Experiment 1, the treatments were fresh native grass, native grass supplemented with fresh sesbania, fresh sesbania and fresh sesbania supplemented with rice bran. In Experiment 2, the treatments were sole diets of leucaena hay, sesbania hay, moringa hay or gliricidia hay supplemented with sesbania hay. In Experiment 1, animals fed sesbania supplemented with rice bran had higher DM intake than did animals fed the other three diets. DM digestibility (DMD) was significantly lower for weaners fed the native grass diet than for those fed the other diets. Animals fed sesbania or sesbania supplemented with rice bran had a higher LWG (0.34 and 0.43 kg/day, respectively) and estimated metabolisable energy (ME) intake (0.71 and 0.80 MJ of ME/kg W0.75.day, respectively) than did animals fed native grass alone (0.03 kg/day; 0.58 MJ of ME/kg W0.75.day) or native grass supplemented with sesbania (0.07 kg/day; 0.64 MJ of ME/kg W[sup 0.75].day). In Experiment 2, animals fed gliricidia hay had the lowest DM intake. DM intake of animals fed moringa hay was higher than that of animals fed gliricidia hay, but lower than the intake of animals fed sesbania hay or leucaena hay. DMD of the sesbania and leucaena hay diets was lower than that of the gliricidia and moringa hay diets. Animals fed leucaena and sesbania hays had a higher LWG (0.47 and 0.43 kg/day, respectively) and estimated ME intake (0.75 and 0.78 MJ of ME/kg W0.75.day, respectively) than did animals fed moringa hay (0.22 kg/day; 0.66 MJ ME/kg W0.75.day) or gliricidia hay supplemented with sesbania hay (0.0 kg/day; 0.48 MJ ME/kg W[sup 0.75].day). In conclusion, tree legumes can safely be fed to growing Bali cattle as the sole component of the diet and some of them will increase LWGs above that of native grasses, which are typically fed to Bali cattle in villages. Weaning and improved feeding of weaned Bali cattle can improve cash flow of smallholder farming households in eastern Indonesia. This experiment aimed to evaluate feeding strategies to increase growth of weaned Bali cattle that may be implemented in village cattle production systems. Feeding certain tree legumes to weaned Bali cattle can increase liveweight gain and potentially increase household cash flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]