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Despite the growing literature on how parenting predicts children's adjustment to potentially stressful events, little is know about the specific mechanisms through which these effects operate. This review identifies some possible paths of parental influence by specifying ways that parents may influence each step of the coping process-from exposure to the potentially stressful event to event appraisal to child coping. Current stress and coping research is reviewed from this perspective, and directions for future research are outlined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To test a model of how mothers cope with the stresses of raising a child with autism (Tunali & Power, 1993), mothers of children with and without autism were interviewed. As predicted, mothers of autistic children: (1) placed less emphasis on career success and were more likely to believe that mothers of young children should not work outside of the home; (2) spent more leisure time with their extended family; (3) placed less emphasis on others' opinions of their child's behavior; (4) placed more emphasis on spousal support and parental roles in their discussions of marriage; (5) had more difficulty understanding their child's behavior; and (6) showed a marginally significant difference in their tolerance of ambiguity. Moreover, mothers of children with autism who showed these characteristics had the greatest life satisfaction overall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Researchers use the Caregiver's Feeding Styles Questionnaire (CFSQ) to categorize parent feeding into authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and uninvolved styles. The CFSQ assesses self-reported feeding and classifies parents using median splits which are used in a substantial body of parenting literature and allow for direct comparison across studies on dimensions of demandingness and responsiveness. No national norms currently exist for the CFSQ. This paper establishes and recommends cutoff points most relevant for low-income, minority US samples that researchers and clinicians can use to assign parents to feeding styles. Median scores for five studies are examined and the average across these studies reported. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Determine self-reported parental feeding behavior changes and perspectives on parental feeding intervention at 12-month follow-up., Methods: Telephone focus groups using a 2 × 2 design (English/Spanish × in-class or online) with Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program participants (n = 37) with children 2-8 years and high exposure to the Food, Feeding, and Your Family intervention (7 lessons). Researchers (n = 3) independently identified themes., Results: Parental behavior changes that (1) positively influenced children's diets, (2) involved children in food-related activities, (3) eased stressful situations around food, (4) led to healthier food choices, and (5) saved money when food shopping. Commonly implemented practices included establishing structured mealtime routines, introducing new foods multiple times, and encouraging children's eating competence. Online participants noted materials were easily accessible via text messages., Conclusions and Implications: Incorporating parental feeding content (in-class or online) into nutrition education interventions, such as the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program, supports developing positive parental feeding behaviors in families with low income., (Copyright © 2024 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: Diet quality has been found to be related to cognitive health in school-aged children. However, this relationship remains understudied among Hispanic preschool-aged children, who are vulnerable to poor dietary habits and low cognitive development due to socioeconomic, cultural, and structural disparities., Objective: This longitudinal study evaluated whether the diet quality of preschool-aged children would be associated with executive functions (EFs) in later childhood., Design: This is a secondary analysis of a longitudinal study of Hispanic preschool-aged children (age 4 and 5 years) at baseline (Time 1) and 18 months (Time 2)., Participants and Setting: This study included 185 mother-child dyads with complete data at Time 1, recruited through Head Start centers in Houston, TX, beginning in 2011., Main Outcome Measures: Mothers reported on their child's dietary intake via 3 24-hour recalls, which was used to calculate Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-2010 component and total scores. Laboratory tasks assessed cold EFs (tapping and Flexible Item Selection Tasks) and hot EFs (delay of gratification and gift-wrapping tasks). Whereas higher scores on tapping, Flexible Item Selection Task, and delay of gratification tasks represent a high EF, higher scores in gift-wrapping task represent a low EF., Statistical Analyses Performed: Hierarchical linear regression analyses assessed the relationship between diet quality, as measured by HEI-2010 total and component scores, at Time 1 (independent variables) and EF outcomes (dependent variables) at Time 2, controlling for child sex, age, body mass index z score, and EF at Time 1., Results: HEI-2010 component score for fatty acids (b = -.13; P = .04) and seafood and plant proteins (b = .09; P = .05), were respectively related to later cold and hot EFs of Hispanic preschool-aged children. Other HEI components or the overall score did not predict EFs., Conclusions: This study shows that specific HEI components support cold and hot EFs development among Hispanic preschool-aged children, but total HEI-2010 score does not. Experimental research is needed to assess the influence of dietary interventions on cognitive development of Hispanic preschool-aged children., (Copyright © 2024 Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A pretest-posttest field test with control group (N = 189 parent-child dyads) tested a structural model representing youths' (ages 9-14) perspectives to examine the efficacy of a family-centered, media literacy-oriented intervention promoting fruit and vegetable consumption. The intervention facilitated critical discussion about nutrition and media, mentored by the parent. Results showed that youths' increases in fruit and vegetable consumption flowed from parent-child discussion of nutrition labels, which was predicted by child-initiated discussion, critical thinking about media sources, and critical thinking about media content. Multivariate analyses revealed that the intervention was productive for all participating age groups and for all dependent variables. The results suggest that a developmental progression from critical thinking about source to critical thinking about content affects behavior change and can be catalyzed through media literacy education and encouragement to discuss media messages (i.e. practice) with parents.

Researchers are increasingly using web-based technologies to deliver family-based, prevention programming. Few studies have examined the success of such approaches for families with low incomes. The purpose of this study was to describe the level of in-class and online engagement in a childhood obesity prevention program for parents with low incomes, to examine the demographic correlates of parent engagement, and to examine dosage effects on parental feeding outcomes as a function of online exposure. All participants attended in-class nutrition education classes (Eating Smart · Being Active) as part of the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) in Colorado and Washington State (classes were offered in English and Spanish). Participants in this analysis were 168 parents from a larger cluster randomized controlled trial who had been randomly assigned to also receive a newly developed, mobile-based version of an efficacious, feeding-focused, childhood obesity prevention program. Results showed that despite high levels of in-person attendance (70%), participants only accessed 47% of the videos (online content). Older parents and parents of girls showed higher levels of in-person attendance; currently employed parents showed lower levels. Online engagement varied as a function of ethnicity and acculturation: non-Hispanic parents accessed the most videos, low-acculturated Hispanic parents accessed the second most, and highly acculturated Hispanic parents accessed the least. In contrast, low-acculturated Hispanic parents showed the highest in-person attendance. For all but one outcome, significant online program effects were found only for parents who accessed at least half of the videos. Implications for mobile-based, family-based prevention programs for parents with low incomes are considered.ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03170700; Registration Date: March 08, 2017., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background: Family-based programs show considerable promise in preventing overweight and obesity in young children. However, dissemination is difficult because significant participant and staff involvement is required. This study examined the short-term efficacy of adding parental feeding content to a widely-used nutrition education curriculum for families in low-resourced communities comparing the influence of two delivery methods (in-class and online) on parents' feeding knowledge, practices, and styles. Methods: In this cluster randomized controlled trial, parents of 2- to 8-year-old children enrolled in the EFNEP (Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program) in Colorado and Washington were randomly assigned to: in-class nutrition education only, in-class nutrition education with in-class feeding content, or in-class nutrition education with online feeding content. Data from the 382 participants who completed both pretest and posttest assessments are reported in this study. Results: Multilevel analyses showed empirical support for the influence of the program on parents' feeding knowledge, practices, and styles. Online and in-class methods were equally effective in delivering feeding content in low-resourced communities. Consistent effects were seen across the two delivery methods for encouraging children to try new foods ( p  < 0.05), use of child-centered feeding practices ( i.e., greater responsiveness, p  < 0.05), child involvement in food preparation ( p  < 0.05), and understanding the number of presentations often necessary for child acceptance of a new food ( p  < 0.001). Location and language differences were seen across some constructs. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the efficacy of in-class and online approaches to feeding highlighting the program's positive effects on promoting healthy feeding behaviors for parents of children in low-resourced families. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03170700.

Few studies have examined the effects of parental depressive symptoms on children in China. The present study examined the relationships between parental depression, parental attributional style, children's coping strategies and 5-12-year-old children's depressive symptoms in a sample of Chinese children whose parents had been diagnosed with an anxiety or a mood disorder. The present study confirmed that children of parents with anxiety or mood disorders would show high levels of depressive symptoms. Parents with an optimistic or neutral attributional style rated their children as showing fewer depressive symptoms than parents with a pessimistic style. This study showed a significant positive relationship between children's disengagement coping and children's reports of depressive symptoms. The findings highlight the need for early identification of, and support and intervention programs for, parents suffering from depression and children of depressed parents as a means of protecting the psychological well-being of both parents and children., (© 2022. Author(s).)

Although parental feeding plays an important role in child eating and weight status, high food motivation among children may also be a factor shaping how feeding impacts child weight. This study explored whether individual differences in preschool children's food motivation interacted with mothers' feeding styles in predicting subsequent child weight status. Participants included 129 Hispanic Head Start mother/child dyads. Data were collected at ages 4-5 years (Time 1) and 7-9 (Time 3). Staff measured heights/weights and observed children in an eating in the absence of hunger task. Mothers reported on feeding styles/practices and children's eating behaviors. A principal components analysis derived a measure of highly motivated eating in children. Multiple regressions predicted Time 3 child BMI z -scores. Time 3 BMI z -scores were positively predicted by authoritative and indulgent feeding styles and negatively predicted by monitoring. Since feeding style interacted with highly motivated eating, separate regressions were run for high and low food motivation in children. Unexpectedly, results showed that authoritative feeding positively predicted Time 3 child BMI z -scores only for children showing low levels of food motivation. Characterizing differential parental feeding and child eating phenotypes may assist in tailoring childhood obesity prevention programs for the target populations.

Social connection is important across the life course, but overall levels have been declining. The COVID-19 pandemic presented a unique context to examine social connectedness and adaptive capacity in times of social adversity. We used a parallel mixed method design to collect online survey data from a representative U.S. sample (N  =  359). Applying an exploratory sequential approach, we used a general linear model multivariate approach to repeated measures to test for differences in participants' perceptions of social connectedness by time and age category and qualitative analysis to gain insights about disrupted social contexts. Results indicated that social connectedness decreased after mitigation restrictions for all age groups, but individuals in emerging and late adulthood felt the greatest impact. Two themes emerged: differing emotional responses to altered communication and intentionality of maintaining and/or creating social connections. Experiences of social connectedness need to be understood as a function of life stage and developmental timing.

The Caregiver's Feeding Styles Questionnaire (CFSQ) is a well-established measure which uses scores along two dimensions of demandingness and responsiveness to classify low-income parents into one of four feeding style typologies (authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and uninvolved; Hughes, et al., 2005). The measure is widely used by researchers to explore the relationship between feeding style and child weight status but has not been evaluated comprehensively in a review or meta-analysis. The aims of this study were to 1) compare established median cutoffs for responsiveness and demandingness in parent feeding (k = 5; see Hughes et al., 2012) to current median splits along these two dimensions for a larger sample of articles (k = 19) and 2) evaluate the relation between children's BMI, demandingness and responsiveness, and parent feeding style categories. Results indicated that the cutoffs for responsiveness and demandingness initially established based on five studies of low-income families did not differ significantly with the addition of 19 studies. Child BMI z-scores (k = 8) were above average for all four parent feeding style categories and highest for indulgent parents, which was consistent with the literature outlining low-income children at higher risk for obesity and children of indulgent parents being particularly at risk. While heterogeneity of samples should be considered, study results suggested that the CFSQ distribution for responsiveness and demandingness was relatively generalizable across low-income samples, though heterogeneity was higher among caregiver's feeding style categories. Furthermore, the study confirmed that parent feeding styles were related to child weight status in a meaningful way, but all children in these low-income samples, on average, were heavier than their same-aged peers across all parent feeding styles., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (Copyright © 2022. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

"Madres Apoyando el Desarrollo Emocional de Sus Hijos" ("Mothers Supporting the Emotional Development of Their Children") is a parenting education program designed to help Latina mothers help their school-age children cope with stress. A previous randomized controlled trial, with a pre-post design, showed that the program had the predicted effects on mothers' knowledge, attitudes, and behavior. However, no data were collected from the children in that initial evaluation. The purpose of the present study was to determine if the program impacted children's coping and adjustment. One hundred twenty-two primarily first-generation Latina mothers from rural Washington State were randomly assigned to the intervention or to a no treatment control. Seven implementations of the program were conducted. Mothers and their 8- to 13-year-old children completed assessments 1 week before the program started, 1 week after its completion, and 3 months later. The results for maternal behavior were largely replicated: at posttest, intervention mothers, compared to controls, reported higher levels of emotion coaching, showed greater self-efficacy for helping their child cope with stress, and were more likely to report positive strategies for scaffolding their child's responses to stressful situations. Several maternal effects (e.g., emotion-coaching and maternal efficacy) continued at 3 months. Children of intervention mothers at posttest used more primary control coping strategies and reported fewer emotional symptoms; analyses of mothers' ratings of child adjustment replicated the posttest child effects for emotional symptoms, showed fewer other psychological problems at posttest, and showed greater child prosocial behavior at 3 months. The results further support the program's efficacy and provide the first evidence of its effects on child coping and adjustment., (© 2022. Society for Prevention Research.)

Feeding styles of parents have been associated with dietary quality/intake and weight outcomes; however, much of the research to date has been cross sectional and the direction of influence unclear. This prospective longitudinal study evaluated the direction of effects between feeding styles and child appetitive traits over time in a sample of 129 Hispanic parent/child dyads that participated in a larger study. Data analyzed for the current study were collected when the children were 4-5 years old and again at ages 7-9 years. Parents (all mothers) reported on their feeding styles and children's appetitive traits using well-established questionnaires. Cross-lagged panel analyses were used to examine the direction of effects. Fully adjusted models revealed that a number of children's appetitive traits at baseline predicted later feeding styles. A bi-directional relationship was found between authoritarian feeding and satiety responsiveness such that higher satiety responsiveness was associated with authoritarian feeding and vice versa. Lower satiety responsiveness was associated with indulgent feeding, whereas higher food responsiveness was associated with authoritarian feeding. Results show preliminary evidence that children's appetitive traits may shape mothers' approach to child feeding. There is also preliminary support for the protective role of an authoritarian feeding style in the self-regulatory processes around child appetitive traits among this population of Hispanic families with low-income levels. These results warrant continued research given that other studies have shown beneficial outcomes for authoritarian feeding among ethnically diverse families with low incomes., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Papaioannou, Micheli, Power, O'Connor, Fisher and Hughes.)

A variety of eating behaviors among children have been associated with obesity risk and are thought to broadly reflect child appetite self-regulation (ASR). While ASR is thought to occur on cognitive, emotional, motivational, biological, and behavioral levels, the inter-relatedness of ASR constructs as assessed by different methods/measures is not well-characterized. This narrative review describes the correspondence between different methods/measures of child ASR constructs as assessed by self-report questionnaires and/or observational tasks and their relationship to child standardized body mass index (BMIz). Research involving at least two different methods/measures is presented including observational tasks such as the Eating in the Absence of Hunger task, compensation trials, and eating rate, as well as various child eating behavior self-report questionnaires. Keyword searches in the PubMed and PsycINFO databases for articles published between 2000 and July 2021 identified 21,042 articles. Eighteen articles met the inclusion criteria and examined at least two of the targeted measures. Studies comparing questionnaire data with other questionnaire data showed the most evidence of significant associations ( r values ranging from -0.45 to 0.49), whereas studies comparing questionnaires with observational tasks mostly showed weak ( r values ranging from -0.17 to 0.19) or not significant associations, with only few studies finding moderate associations ( r values ranging from -0.38 to 0.33). Studies comparing different observational tasks showed no significant associations. Overall, studies comparing self-report questionnaires showed the most correspondence, whereas those comparing observational tasks showed no correspondence. Studies across methods (questionnaires with tasks) showed less correspondence. Significant associations were found between ASR constructs and child BMIz across five studies using self-report questionnaires and two studies using observational tasks. Future research is needed to clearly define the various ASR constructs, their expected correspondence, and the strength of that correspondence, as well as the relations between ASR constructs and child weight among youth with and without overweight/obesity., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Papaioannou, Micheli, Power, Fisher and Hughes.)

Over the last decade, longitudinal research has shown that children's general, top-down self-regulation during early childhood is negatively associated with children's weight status in elementary school. The samples in these previous studies have been primarily White, and no study to date has examined this issue in a sample of Hispanic children from low-income families-a population at high risk for childhood obesity. The present study followed 130 Hispanic children over a time period of three to just under five years, examining the degree to which multiple measures of general, top-down self-regulation, along with a measure of appetite regulation (eating in the absence of hunger), predicted children's BMI z-scores in the early elementary school years. Results showed that children's ability to delay gratification in the preschool years was negatively associated with later BMI z-scores and that children's eating in the absence of hunger was positively associated. In separate models by gender, these relationships were significant only for girls. Moreover, analyses run separately for children of mothers low or high on acculturation showed that the relationship between delay of gratification and later BMI z-scores was significant only for children whose mothers were low on acculturation. Possible socialization and environmental factors contributing to these findings are considered., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Objective: Maternal control and directiveness in Latina/o families often do not show the negative associations with child adjustment seen in European American samples. This study tested the self-determination hypotheses that Latina maternal involvement and structure would be positively associated with preschool children's later self-regulation, whereas directiveness and control would show negative relations., Design: At Time 1, 130 low-income Latina mothers were observed helping their 4- to 5-year-old children complete a stressful task. Maternal strategies for scaffolding children's responses to stress were examined with detailed event coding. At Time 1 and Time 2 18 months later, a delay of gratification task assessed children's self-regulation., Results: Children's Time 2 ability to delay gratification at 5½ to 6½ years (controlling for delay of gratification at ages 4 to 5) was predicted by Time 1 maternal scaffolding strategies. Children showing the greatest delay gratification at Time 2 (controlling for delay of gratification at Time 1) had mothers who used instructive praise and nonverbal autonomy-promoting scaffolding strategies at Time 1. Negative predictors included nonverbal attention directing and restriction., Conclusions: The findings highlight the importance of physical guidance in Latina/o families and suggest that highly directive maternal strategies may not interfere with the development of self-regulation as is often found in European American families. These findings will be useful in developing interventions to promote self-regulation in Latina/o children from low-income families., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest Disclosure Each author signed a form for disclosure of potential conflicts of interest. No authors reported any financial or other conflicts of interest in relation to the work described.

Objective: Use of implementation science strategies to promote fidelity in the Food, Feeding, and Your Family study., Design: Cluster randomized controlled trial with 3 conditions: control, in-class, or online, delivered in English or Spanish. Observations of 20% of classes., Setting: Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) in 2 states., Participants: EFNEP peer educators (n = 11)., Intervention: Parental feeding content incorporated into EFNEP lessons (in-class) or through text with links to videos/activities (online). Extensive educator training, scripted curriculum, frequent feedback., Analysis: Assessment of fidelity compliance. Qualitative analysis of verbatim educator interviews and classroom observer comments., Results: During 128 class observations (40-45 per condition), peer educators followed scripted lesson plan 78% to 89% of the time. There was no evidence of cross-contamination of parental feeding content in control and only minor sharing in online conditions. Variations with fidelity were primarily tied to the EFNEP curriculum, not the parent feeding content. Educators (n = 7) expressed favorable opinions about the Food, Feeding, and Your Family study, thought it provided valuable information, and appreciated support from EFNEP leadership., Conclusions and Implications: Incorporating implementation science strategies can help ensure successful adherence to research protocols. With proper training and support, EFNEP peer educators can deliver an evidence-based curriculum as part of a complex research study., (Copyright © 2021 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Assess effects of an obesity prevention program promoting eating self-regulation and healthy preferences in Hispanic preschool children., Design: Randomized controlled trial with pretest, posttest, 6- and 12-month assessments. Fourteen waves, each lasting 7 weeks., Setting: Families recruited from Head Start across 2 sites., Participants: Two hundred fifty-five families randomized into prevention (n = 136) or control (n = 119)., Intervention: Prevention received curriculum; control received no curriculum., Main Outcome Measure(s): Feeding knowledge/practices/styles (parent); body mass index percentile, eating self-regulation, trying new foods, and fruit/vegetable consumption (child)., Analysis: Multilevel analyses for nested data (time points within families; families within waves) and multinomial regression., Results: Program increased mothers' repeated presentation of new foods (P < 0.05), measured portion sizes (P < 0.05), child involvement in food preparation (P < 0.001), feeding responsiveness (P < 0.001), knowledge of best feeding practices (P < 0.001), and feeding efficacy (P < 0.05); reduced feeding misconceptions (P < 0.01) and uninvolved feeding (P < 0.01). Effects on child eating behavior were minimal. At 12 months, children in the prevention group were less likely to have overweight (P < 0.05) or obesity (P < 0.05)., Conclusions and Implications: Program effects emphasize the importance of feeding approaches in reducing childhood obesity., (Copyright © 2021 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This paper describes the evaluation of a program that provides low-income Latina mothers with skills to help their children cope with stress. Based on focus groups with mothers and their school-aged children in two locations, we developed a five-week program for helping mothers identify signs of stress in their children, learn effective emotion-coaching skills, and learn how to effectively encourage their children to use coping strategies that match the controllability of the situation. We conducted a randomized controlled trial in an urban (n = 13) and rural (n = 78) location in which we randomly assigned mothers to either an intervention or a no-treatment control condition. We completed eight implementations of the program (2 in the urban sample and 6 in the rural one). To evaluate the program, we collected pre- and post-assessments of mothers' coping knowledge, emotion coaching, strategies for helping their children cope with stress, maternal self-efficacy in helping their children cope, general parenting practices, and general parenting self-efficacy. Observers assessed the fidelity of program delivery. Mothers who received the intervention, in contrast to those in the control condition, showed significant increases in their knowledge of strategies to help their children cope with stress, in reported emotion-coaching skills, and in the reported use of positive strategies for helping their children manage their behavior and emotions in stressful situations (i.e., helping their children relax and calm down, talking with their children about feelings, helping their children problem-solve, encouraging distraction, and helping their children improve their self-esteem). Post intervention, mothers reported increases in their efficacy for helping their children cope with stress. Analyses revealed no significant effects of the program on general parenting or general parenting self-efficacy, but did have the hypothesized effects on maternal knowledge, attitudes, and reported behavior. Subsequent research should examine the degree to which the program has effects over a longer time period and on children's approaches to coping with stress.

Background: The home environment is a central and modifiable influence on the development of childhood obesity. Evidence supports the central role of parents in shaping problematic child eating behaviors and excess weight. Most studies of feeding emphasize parent-driven influences without taking into account the child's role in eating interactions. Few studies have addressed the bi-directional nature of feeding dynamics in studies of young children., Methods: The goals of this study were: 1) to examine if parental feeding styles during preschool (4-5 years) predict child weight status at 7-9 years, and 2) to examine the direction of effects between parental feeding styles and child weight status over time. Participants were part of a larger longitudinal study of Hispanic Head Start families living in the West South Central United States. Data from mother/child dyads were collected at three time points: Time 1 (ages 4-5), Time 2 (ages 5 ½-6 ½), and at Time 3 (ages 7-9). Only data from the Times 1 and 3 were used in the current analyses. A total of 128 mothers and their children had data on all variables needed for the analyses. Assessments included parent-reported feeding styles, feeding practices, acculturation, child eating behaviors, and child height and weight. Hierarchical regression was used to examine the first aim; a cross-lagged panel analysis examined the second aim., Results: An indulgent parental feeding style at ages 4-5 was associated with increased child BMI z-score at ages 7-9. Indulgent feeding significantly contributed to child BMI z-score beyond demographics, baseline child BMI z-score, parental acculturation, and child eating behaviors. Regarding the direction of effects in parental feeding interactions, the cross-lagged analyses showed that both indulgent feeding style and authoritative feeding style at Time 1 positively predicted child BMI z-scores at Time 3. Child effects were significant as well. Child BMI z-score at Time 1 positively predicted indulgent feeding and negatively predicted authoritarian feeding at Time 3., Conclusions: Indulgent feeding should be addressed in future family-focused childhood obesity initiatives focused on young children and their parents.

Previous research has shown that general parenting styles, general parenting dimensions, maternal feeding styles, and maternal feeding practices all show specific relationships with the weight status of young children. This study examined the relationships between general parenting and maternal feeding styles/practices in a sample of 187 Hispanic mothers with low incomes. As part of a larger study, mothers of preschool children were recruited through Head Start programs and completed validated questionnaires assessing their general parenting, feeding styles, and feeding practices. Results identified numerous associations between general parenting dimensions and specific feeding practices: i.e., maternal nurturance was positively associated with healthy eating guidance and feeding responsiveness; inconsistency was positively associated with restriction for weight and promotion of overconsumption; follow through on discipline was positively associated with monitoring, healthy eating guidance, and feeding responsiveness; and family organization was positively associated with monitoring and healthy eating guidance. General parenting styles were associated with feeding practices as well, with authoritative mothers showing the highest levels of healthy eating guidance and authoritarian mothers showing the lowest levels of monitoring. There were no significant associations between mothers' general parenting styles and mothers' feeding styles. Implications of these findings for the prevention of childhood obesity are considered.

Objectives: We examined perceived behavior change since implementation of physical distancing restrictions and identified modifiable (self-rated health, resilience, depressive symptoms, social support and subjective wellbeing) and non-modifiable (demographics) risk/protective factors. Methods: A representative US sample (N = 362) completed an online survey about potential risk/protective factors and health behaviors prior to the pandemic and after implemented/recommended restrictions. We assessed change in perceived health behaviors prior to and following introduction of COVID-19. We conducted hierarchical linear regression to explore and identify risk/protective factors related to physical activity, diet quality, and social isolation. Results: There have been substantial decreases in physical activity and increases in sedentary behavior and social isolation, but no changes in diet quality since COVID-19. We identified modifiable and non-modifiable factors associated with each health behavior. Conclusions: Negative effects indicate the need for universal intervention to promote health behaviors. Inequalities in health behaviors among vulnerable populations may be exacerbated since COVID-19, suggesting need for targeted invention. Social support may be a mechanism to promote health behaviors. We suggest scaling out effective health behavior interventions with the same intensity in which physical distancing recommendations were implemented.

Background: Maternal feeding practices and styles are well-established correlates of children's BMI z -scores in the preschool years. Most studies, however, are cross-sectional, using maternal self-reports to examine feeding. This study examined, over a 3½-year period, the relationship between observed and self-reported feeding practices/styles and children's BMI z -scores in a sample of Hispanic mothers with low incomes and their preschool children. Methods: One hundred eighty-seven mothers were observed feeding their 4- to 5-year old during a buffet meal in a laboratory setting and completed self-report measures on their feeding practices and styles. Children's BMI z-scores were assessed at this visit and 3½ years later. Results: Consistent with previous research, observed and self-reported pressure to eat and/or authoritarian feeding were negatively associated with children's BMI z -scores at the first time point; observed discouraging eating was positively associated. However, children's BMI z -scores 3½ years later, controlling for Time 1 BMI z -scores, were positively associated with observed pressure to eat. Observed maternal reasoning and self-reported monitoring of children's eating behavior at Time 1 were negatively associated with later BMI z -scores. Only self-reported feeding styles predicted later children's BMI z -scores, with indulgent and authoritative styles positively associated with children's BMI z -scores at the third time point. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that mothers who ignore their children's fullness cues and pressure them to eat have children who are at greater risk for the development of later obesity. Implications for the development of family-focused childhood obesity prevention programs are discussed.

Dietary quality is important for children's growth and development. Poor dietary quality and maternal depression are prevalent among low-income, Hispanic families. Maternal depression likely influences child feeding before and during the meal. This secondary data analysis of an observational feeding study (2007-2008) examined how maternal depressive symptomology relates to dietary quality of dinner served to and consumed by Head Start preschoolers in Houston, TX (n = 82 mother-child dyads). A digital photography method assessed food served and consumed by the child at three separate dinner meals in families' homes. Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI) was calculated and averaged across the three meals to measure dietary quality (possible range 0-100). Maternal depression was assessed by the Centers for Epidemiologic Depression Scale (CES-D, possible range 0-60). A series of linear regression models were developed, regressing the total CES-D score and all four CES-D subscales onto both the dietary quality of the meal served and consumed. Dinners served had a HEI of 45.70 ± 9.19 and dinners consumed had a HEI of 44.65 ± 7.34. Clinically significant depressive symptomology (CES-D ≥ 16) was reported by 28% of mothers. Maternal depressive symptomology and the dietary quality served were not related. Controlling for dietary quality served, total CES-D and somatic complaints subscale scores were associated with lower dietary quality consumed (respectively, β = -0.16, p < 0.05 and β = -0.23, p < 0.01). Among low-income, Hispanic families, maternal depressive symptomology was predictive of the dietary quality consumed, but not served. Together, these findings reinforce the importance of parent feeding behaviors and emotional climates during dinner., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2020 The Authors.)

Background: Media use is a known contributor to childhood obesity, but encouraging reductions in screen use only partially eliminates media influence. We tested a family-centered, media literacy-oriented intervention to empower parents and children 9-14 years to skillfully use media to reduce marketing influences, enhance nutrition knowledge, improve the selection of foods in the home environment, and improve fruit and vegetable consumption. Methods: A community-based, 6-U program included separate parent and youth (ages 9-14 years) sessions, each of which was followed by a session together in which skills from the individual sessions were reinforced. A pretest to posttest field test with control groups ( N  = 189, parent-child dyads) tested the intervention's efficacy. Results: Standardized mean differences from the multiple analysis of covariance tests showed that the intervention group demonstrated improvements on parents' use of nutrition labels (0.29), the ratio of healthy to unhealthy food in the home environment (0.25), youth's fruit (0.30) and vegetable (0.25) consumption, parent and youth media literacy skills, and family communication dynamics about food. The largest effects found were for negative parental mediation (0.48) and parents' report of child-initiated discussion (0.47). Consistent but weaker results were revealed for Latinx families. Conclusions: This family-centered approach helped family members practice using media together to make better nutrition decisions without depending on the ability of parents to limit media use. It successfully addressed the often-negative impact of the media on behaviors that increase obesity risk while also cultivating the potential for media to provide useful information that can lead to behaviors that decrease obesity risk.

Objective: To develop a childhood obesity prevention program, Food, Feeding and Your Family (FFYF), which encourages eating self-regulation in young children. This article describes the research methods for FFYF. Activities that will be used to guide the development of the program are illustrated in a logic model., Design: A randomized control trial will be conducted with participant groups randomized into 1 of 3 conditions: (1) in-class delivery of feeding content and nutrition education, (2) online delivery of feeding content and in-class delivery of nutrition education, and (3) nutrition education only. Assessments will be collected at baseline, program completion, and 6 and 12 months after completion of the program., Setting: Study will be conducted through the Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program in Colorado and Washington State., Participants: Parents with 2- to 8-year-old children will be recruited from affiliated community agencies, 540 participants across both states., Interventions: FFYF derives content from an empirically validated parental feeding program, Strategies for Effective Eating Development, and will be administered with Eating Smart • Being Active, an evidence-based, nutrition education curriculum., Main Outcome Measures: Parents will report on feeding practices, child eating behaviors, feeding styles, and acculturation., Analysis: Because of the nested nature of the data, multilevel analyses will be used: time points, within parents, and within groups., (Copyright © 2019 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To assess the short-term effects of an obesity prevention program promoting eating self-regulation and healthy food preferences in low-income Hispanic children., Design: Randomized controlled trial with pretest, posttest, and 6- and 12-month assessments., Setting and Participants: Head Start and similar early learning institutions in Houston, TX, and Pasco, WA. A total of 255 families with preschoolers randomized into prevention (n = 136) and control (n = 119) groups., Intervention: Multicomponent family-based prevention program. Fourteen waves lasted 7 weeks each with 8-10 mother-child dyads in each group., Main Outcome Measures: Parent assessments included feeding practices, styles, and knowledge. Child assessments included child eating self-regulation, willingness to try new foods, and parent report of child fruit and vegetable preferences. Parent and child heights and weights were measured., Analysis: Multilevel analyses were employed to consider the nested nature of the data: time points within families within waves., Results: The program had predicted effects on parental feeding practices, styles, and knowledge in the pre- to post-comparisons. Effects on child eating behavior were minimal; only the number of different vegetables tried showed significant pre-post differences., Conclusions and Implications: Short-term effects of this prevention program highlight the importance of family-focused feeding approaches to combating child overweight and obesity., (Copyright © 2019 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Individual differences in eating behaviors have been associated with obesity among young children. Food responsiveness tends to be positively associated with childhood obesity, satiety responsiveness tends to show a negative association, and the results for emotional overeating are mixed. Previous studies in this area, however, have generally employed cross-sectional designs. The purpose of the present study was to examine, in a sample of Hispanic children from families with low-income levels, the degree to which individual differences in child eating behaviors in the preschool years predicted changes in child weight into the early elementary school years. Parent/child dyads (n = 113) were seen on three separate occasions starting when the children were 4-years-old and ending when they were 8-years-old. Separate cross-lag panel analyses were conducted for food responsiveness, satiety responsiveness, and emotional overeating in examining the relationships between child eating behavior and child weight status over time. Consistent with previous cross-sectional studies, at all three time points, food responsiveness was positively associated with concurrent child weight status and satiety responsiveness showed a negative relationship. No concurrent relationship with child weight status was found for emotional overeating until the third time point when children were eight-years-old. Only two cross-lag associations between child eating behavior and child weight status were significant: emotional overeating and child weight status showed a bidirectional relationship between the second and third time points. Future longitudinal studies should examine these relationships in other populations., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This study focused on the relationship between low-income Latina mothers' perceptions of their preschool children's weight status and maternal feeding practices and styles, also considering the effects of actual child weight status and maternal concern about child weight. A total of 186 low-income Latina mother-child dyads participated. The vast majority of mothers underestimated the weight status of their child, but this varied by child weight status. Although only 30% of mothers of healthy weight children underestimated their child's weight status, 97% of mothers of overweight or obese children did so. No mother overestimated her child's weight status. Contrary to our hypotheses, in most cases, maternal perceptions of child's body weight were not related to maternal feeding styles, nor were many feeding practices predicted by concern about child weight. Instead, children's actual weight status was the strongest predictor of maternal feeding practices and feeding styles. Mothers of children with higher BMI z-scores reported higher levels of healthy eating guidance and responsiveness during feeding and lower levels of pressure to eat, food as reward, and using food to regulate the child's emotions. These mothers were more likely to show an indulgent and less likely to show an authoritarian feeding style. Concern about child weight did not account for any of these significant correlations. Maternal perceptions only mattered for restriction for weight purposes where there were independent effects of both perceived and actual weight status. Implications for understanding the development of child obesity in low-income, Latino populations are considered, along with recommendations for future research and for childhood obesity prevention programs., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Previous studies have noted that child temperament characteristics, such as aspects of self-regulation, as well as parental feeding practices contribute to children's body mass index (BMI), and have implications for identifying children who may be at risk of being overweight or obese. While studies have considered children's temperament or maternal feeding practices separately, few have considered these correlates of children's BMI jointly or in interaction in relation to children's BMI. The current study included 179 mother-child dyads participating in a longitudinal study. Information on children's impulsivity and inhibitory control was collected when children were 24 months of age. Children's tendency to emotionally overeat, maternal supervision of children's eating, and toddler and maternal BMI were assessed when children reached 30 months of age. Higher toddler impulsivity and emotional overeating, as well as maternal BMI were positively associated with toddler BMI. Inhibitory control and maternal supervision of toddler eating were not directly associated with toddler BMI. However, the main effect of toddler impulsivity was qualified by a significant interaction with maternal supervision of toddler eating. For children high in impulsivity, there was a significant negative association between maternal eating supervision and toddler BMI. For children low in impulsivity, there was a trend level (p = .059) positive relation between maternal eating supervision and toddler BMI. These findings suggest that increased maternal supervision of children's eating may be beneficial for helping children maintain a healthy BMI when they exhibit high impulsivity., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The Comprehensive Feeding Practices Questionnaire (CFPQ) is an important measure to assess parent feeding practices as it encompasses a broad range of feeding behaviors, not just behaviors negatively associated with child weight outcomes. However, parent feeding practices have been shown to differ across ethnicities and the CFPQ has not been tested among low-income, Hispanic-American parents with preschool-aged children, a group at elevated risk for developing obesity. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed with the present Hispanic-American sample of Head Start mothers with preschoolers to confirm the original 12-factor, 49-item structure of the CFPQ. Because the original factor structure was not confirmed in the present Hispanic-American sample, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted to examine the psychometric properties of the CFPQ in this sample (n = 187). Among this sample, a five-factor model with 34 items was found to more appropriately assess parent feeding practices than the original 12-factor, 49-item CFPQ. This study provides preliminary validation of the CFPQ for use among low income, Hispanic-American families. Although future research is needed to replicate findings among a larger sample, this study takes an important first step toward more accurately assessing parent feeding practices among this high-risk population to inform tailored interventions that aim to reduce economic and ethnic disparities in child obesity., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Background: TV viewing has been associated with children's weight status and is thought to be mediated mostly through children's dietary intake. However, the mechanisms underlying this association are not understood., Objective: Assess the associations of having the TV on and the child watching TV during dinners with the dietary quality consumed at that meal and with the child's weight status., Methods: Secondary analysis of a directly-observed study of 144 preschool-aged African American and Hispanic, low-income children's dinner meals. Three home dinners were video recorded per child (428 meals observed) and what children were served and consumed measured. The Healthy Eating Index-2010 assessed dietary quality of dinners served and consumed. Child height and weight were measured and parents completed questionnaires. Videos were coded for whether the TV was on and the proportion of the dinner the child watched TV. Mixed models with meal observations nested within child assessed the associations., Results: 77% of children consumed at least one dinner with the TV on. The proportion of the meal the child watched TV was not associated with lower dietary quality consumed. TV on was associated with the dietary quality consumed only in the fully adjusted model (p < 0.05). The dietary quality of dinner served was most strongly associated with the dietary quality consumed (p < 0.0001). Neither having the TV on nor child watching the TV while eating were associated with the child's BMI z-score., Conclusion: Having the TV on during meals was common, but watching TV during the meal was not associated with the dietary quality of what the children consumed. Further controlled studies should evaluate if turning the TV off during dinner directly improves the dietary quality children consume at that meal., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To investigate whether food insecurity affects child body mass index (BMI) through parental feeding demandingness and/or responsiveness and dietary quality 18 months later among low-income Hispanic preschoolers., Design: Secondary analysis of data at baseline and 18 months afterward., Setting: Houston, TX., Participants: Hispanic parent-preschooler dyads (n = 137)., Variables: Food insecurity (6-item Household Food Security Survey), child BMI (BMI z-score), child dietary quality (Healthy Eating Index), and parental feeding demandingness and responsiveness (Caregiver's Feeding Style Questionnaire)., Analysis: Ordinary least-squares regression models and 95% bootstrapped confidence intervals (CIs) to estimate effects., Results: Controlling for baseline child BMI, maternal acculturation, and maternal BMI, total indirect effects of food insecurity on child BMI through feeding demandingness, responsiveness, and subsequent child dietary quality were estimated to be 0.001 (95% bias-controlled bootstrap CI, -0.01 to 0.01). Confidence intervals for all indirect pathways straddled 0. As food insecurity worsened, child dietary quality 18 months after baseline improved (c = 1.06; 95% CI, 0.41-1.71)., Conclusions and Implications: Food insecurity had no influence on child BMI through feeding demandingness/responsiveness and/or child dietary quality. Additional research is needed to examine why food insecurity had a protective effect on dietary quality 18 months later. This finding suggests the adoption of coping mechanisms., (Copyright © 2019 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Currently, a number of questionnaires exist assessing a wide range of food parenting practices with young children. In 2016, a concept map covering three food parenting domains-coercive control, parental structure, and autonomy support-was published along with a critical review of the literature. Mapping existing food parenting questionnaires onto these concepts showed that the major focus had been on coercive control. Important aspects of the parenting process around feeding have been inadvertently omitted-parental responsiveness to children's fullness cues, parental strategies to encourage children to try new foods, and parental practices related to children's portion sizes. To address this, we developed the Food Parenting Inventory (FPI) targeting encouragement of new foods, mealtime structure, and external control. This new questionnaire draws from a variety of sources including the Child Feeding Questionnaire and the Family Rituals Questionnaire. The FPI addresses most of the food parenting practices outlined in the concept map with the exception of food availability/accessibility, food preparation, and praise. Psychometrics were assessed with a sample of 248 low-income, Latina mothers who completed questionnaires on food parenting practices, parental feeding styles, and child eating behaviors. Findings suggest good initial evidence for the reliability and validity of the FPI among Latina families with preschoolers. This questionnaire advances the field of food parenting by targeting neglected constructs that play an important role in the development of child eating behaviors., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Demandingness and responsiveness are dimensions used in general parenting as well as the feeding literature to measure parent attitudes and behaviors. These dimensions can be treated as continuous variables (variable-centered) or used to form groups of parents based on scores on each dimension (person-centered). Research focusing on these dimensions in the feeding domain has relied exclusively on maternal self-reports; observational studies of feeding styles have yet to be conducted., Objectives: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of variable-centered versus person-centered analyses in examining relationships between maternal feeding styles, child eating behaviors, and child weight status using both self-reported and observational methods for assessing parental feeding style., Methods: Participants included 137 low-income Head Start mothers and their preschoolers. Mothers completed the Caregiver's Feeding Styles Questionnaire and the Children's Eating Behavior Questionnaire. Parent/child interactions were observed during dinner meals at home and were coded using a previously developed coding system., Results: Maternal demandingness during feeding was negatively associated with child BMI z-scores and positively associated with slowness in eating and satiety responsiveness. Maternal responsiveness was associated positively with enjoyment of food and associated negatively with food fussiness. Significant demandingness by responsiveness interactions showed that children of authoritarian mothers showed the highest levels of food fussiness and the lowest enjoyment of food. Overall, the findings were stronger for the self-report than for the observational measures and the variable-centered approach was clearly superior to the person-centered approach., Conclusions: The current results indicate that for research purposes the variable-centered approach may be the most powerful for examining relationships between maternal feeding and child eating. However, for clinical purposes, the person-centered approach might be most informative., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Parent feeding styles have been linked to child weight status across multiple studies. However, to our knowledge, the link between feeding styles and children's dietary quality, a more proximal outcome, has not been investigated., Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the relation between parent feeding styles and dietary quality of Head Start preschoolers' dinner meals., Design: The amount of food served and consumed by children was measured by using a standardized digital photography method during 3 in-home dinner observations of low-income minority families in Houston, Texas. Trained dietitians entered food served and consumed into the Nutrient Data System for Research 2009 for nutrient analysis. Overall dietary quality of the food served and consumed at dinner was evaluated by using the Healthy Eating Index 2010 (HEI-2010). Parent feeding style was assessed with the use of the Caregiver's Feeding Style Questionnaire (CFSQ). On the basis of a parent's level of demandingness and responsiveness to his or her child during feeding, the CFSQ categorizes parent feeding into 4 styles: authoritative (high demandingness and high responsiveness), authoritarian (high demandingness and low responsiveness), indulgent (low demandingness and high responsiveness), or uninvolved (low demandingness and low responsiveness)., Results: For the overall sample, the mean ± SD HEI score for dinner served was 44.2 ± 8.4, and the mean ± SD HEI score for dinner consumed was 43.4 ± 7.0. In the fully adjusted model, ANCOVA indicated that the authoritative parent feeding style was associated with significantly higher child dietary quality compared with the authoritarian feeding style (mean ± SEE HEI consumed-authoritative 45.5 ± 0.9; authoritarian: 41.9 ± 0.7; P = 0.001)., Conclusions: Parent feeding style contributes to the overall dietary quality of children, and among low-income minority preschoolers an authoritative feeding style was associated with the highest dietary quality of the 4 feeding styles. Interventions to promote feeding practices that contribute to authoritative feeding are needed to improve the dietary quality of preschool children at dinner. This trial was registered at https://clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02696278.

Snacking makes significant contributions to children's dietary intake but is poorly understood from a parenting perspective. This research was designed to develop and evaluate the psychometrics of a theoretically grounded, empirically-informed measure of snack parenting. The Parenting around SNAcking Questionnaire (P-SNAQ) was developed using a conceptual model derived from current theory and mixed-methods research to include 20 hypothesized snack parenting practices along 4 parenting dimensions (autonomy support, structure, coercive control and permissiveness). Expert panel evaluation and cognitive interviews were used to refine items and construct definitions. The initial instrument of 105 items was administered to an ethnically diverse, low-income sample of 305 parents (92% mothers) of children aged 1-6 y participating in three existing cohort studies. The sample was randomly split into two equal samples. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted with the first sample to identify snack parenting practices within each parenting dimension, followed by confirmatory factor analysis with the second sample to test the hypothesized factor structure. Internal consistency of sub-scales and associations with existing measures of food parenting practices and styles and child weight status were evaluated. The final P-SNAQ scale included 51 items reflecting 14 snack parenting practices across four parenting dimensions. The factor structure of the P-SNAQ was consistent with prior theoretical frameworks. Internal consistency coefficients were good to very good for 12 out of 14 scales and subscale scores were moderately correlated with previously validated measures. In conclusion, initial evidence suggests that P-SNAQ is a psychometrically sound measure for evaluating a wide range of snack parenting practices in young children., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: During the last two decades, researchers have devoted considerable attention to the role of maternal feeding behaviors, practices, and styles in the development of obesity in young children. Little is known, however, about the consistency of maternal feeding across settings and time. The purpose of this paper was to provide data on this issue by examining the consistency of observed maternal feeding behavior across multiple eating occasions, as well as examine the consistency of observed and self-reported maternal feeding behavior across 18 months., Methods: Videotapes from two studies of low-income mothers and their preschool children were coded for feeding practices, dimensions, and styles: a study of 137 low-income, African American and Latina mothers and their children observed during three meals in their homes over a two to three week period, and a study of 138 low-income, Latina mothers observed during a buffet meal in a laboratory setting on two separate occasions 18 months apart. Videotapes from both studies were coded for a wide range of maternal feeding behaviors and strategies. Mothers in the second study also completed three validated, self-report questionnaires on their feeding practices and styles., Results: Overall, both observed and self-reported feeding practices and styles showed only moderate levels of stability across meals and over time. Maternal attempts to regulate children's eating showed more stability across meals and over time than the content of general mealtime conversation. Also, greater stability was found in what mothers were trying to get their children to do during the meals than in the strategies they used to influence child behavior. Self-reports of feeding showed greater stability over time than observational measures. Across meals and across 18 months, the stability of general feeding styles was between 40% and 50%., Conclusions: The findings demonstrate that maternal feeding behavior was only moderately stable across meals and over time-that is, feeding behavior varied considerably across situations. The lack of high levels of consistency in feeding behavior suggests that situational factors may play a major role in influencing maternal behavior as well. Family-focused childhood obesity programs should focus not only on helping parents change their feeding practices and styles, but also focus on increasing parents' sensitivity to situational factors that affect their approach to feeding their children.

Early work by Klesges et al. (1983, 1986) suggested that mothers who frequently prompt their children to eat have children at greater risk for obesity. This is consistent with the hypothesis that controlling feeding practices override children's responsiveness to their internal fullness cues, increasing the risk of overeating and obesity (e.g., Johnson & Birch, 1994). Subsequent cross-sectional research on pressure to eat, however, has been inconsistent. Most studies have shown that maternal self-reports of pressure to eat are negatively associated with childhood obesity, and observational studies showed inconsistent relationships with child weight status. In the present study we examined the association between low-income, Latina mothers' pressure to eat and their preschool children's eating in the absence of hunger using both self-report and observational measures of feeding practices. A longitudinal design examined eating in the absence of hunger over 18 months; children's BMI at the initial timepoint was statistically controlled to address the tendency of mothers of underweight children to pressure their children to eat. At each timepoint, mothers completed the Child Feeding Questionnaire (Birch et al., 2001) and were observed feeding their child a meal in a laboratory setting. Eating in the absence of hunger (Fisher & Birch, 1999) was assessed at both timepoints as well. A cross-lagged panel model showed that observed maternal prompts to eat a different food at time one predicted kcal consumed in the absence of hunger at time two (controlling for kcal consumed in the absence of hunger at first timepoint: beta = 0.20, p < 0.05). Results suggest that pressure to eat alone may not be what contributes to eating in the absence of hunger, but that the nature of that pressure may be more important., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Introduction Parents play a key role in the development of eating habits in preschool children, as they are the food "gatekeepers." Repeated exposure to new foods can improve child food preferences and consumption. The objective of this study was to determine parent feeding strategies used to influence child acceptance of previously rejected foods (PRF). Methods We conducted eighteen focus groups (total participants = 111) with low-income African American and Hispanic parents of preschool children (3- to 5-year-olds) in Texas, Colorado, and Washington. Through thematic analysis, we coded transcripts and analyzed coded quotes to develop dominant emergent themes related to strategies used to overcome children's food refusal. Results We found three major themes in the data: parents most often do not serve PRF; parents value their child eating over liking a food; and parents rarely use the same feeding strategy more than once for a PRF. Desiring to reduce waste and save time, parents said they most often intentionally decided not to purchase or serve PRF to their children. Discussion Because parents' primary goal in child feeding is getting children to eat (over acceptance of a variety of foods), strategies to help parents promote consumption of less easily accepted foods could help parents with child feeding struggles and improve children's dietary quality.

The current study examined the relationships between the specific strategies that preschool children use to regulate their emotions and childhood weight status to see if emotion regulation strategies would predict childhood weight status over and above measures of eating self-regulation. 185 4- to 5-year-old Latino children were recruited through Head Start centers in a large city in the southeastern U.S. Children completed both a delay of gratification task (emotion regulation) and an eating in the absence of hunger task (eating regulation). Eating regulation also was assessed by maternal reports. Four emotion regulation strategies were examined in the delay of gratification task: shut out stimuli, prevent movement, distraction, and attention to reward. Hierarchical linear regressions predicting children's weight status showed that both measures of eating regulation negatively predicted child obesity, and the use of prevent movement negatively predicted child obesity. Total wait time during the delay of gratification tasks was not a significant predictor. The current findings are consistent with studies showing that for preschool children, summary measures of emotion regulation (e.g., wait time) are not concurrently associated with child obesity. In contrast, the use of emotion regulation strategies was a significant predictor of lower child weight status. These findings help identify emotion regulation strategies that prevention programs can target for helping children regulate their emotions and decrease their obesity risk., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Maternal depressive symptoms and perceptions of child difficulty are associated with negative effects on general development and cognitive functioning in children. The study examined associations between maternal depressive symptoms, perceptions of child difficulty, and maternal feeding behaviors in a population at elevated risk for childhood obesity., Methods: Participants were 138 low-income black and Hispanic mothers and their children (ages 3-5) participating in an observational study of mealtimes among Head Start families. Three dinnertime observations were conducted over 2 weeks on each family and audio/videotaped for coding. Coding included eating influence attempts and other food- and nonfood-related interactions exhibited by the mother during dinner. Mothers completed questionnaires on depressive symptoms and perceptions of child difficulty. Linear regressions were conducted, examining associations between maternal depressive symptoms, perceptions of child difficulty, and coded parent feeding behaviors., Results: Mothers reporting higher levels of depressive symptoms used more verbal pressure to get their child to eat during meals, were more likely to discourage child independence, and less likely to enforce table manners. Mothers reporting higher perceptions of child difficulty were less likely to have nonfood-related discussions during meals and to try to get the child to eat a different food., Conclusions: This study is one of the first to investigate associations between maternal depression, perceptions of child difficulty, and mother's feeding behaviors during meals using observational methodology. These results may help researchers identify specific parental characteristics and feeding practices on which to intervene when developing tailored intervention programs for reducing childhood obesity.

Parents influence child weight through interactions that shape the development of child eating behaviors. In this study we examined the association between maternal autonomy promoting serving practices and child appetite regulation. We predicted that maternal autonomy promoting serving practices would be positively associated with child appetite regulation. Participants were low-income Latino children-a group at high risk for the development of childhood obesity. A total of 186 low-income Latina mothers and their 4-5 year old children came to a laboratory on two separate days. On the first day, mothers and children chose foods for a meal from a buffet and were audio/videotaped so that maternal autonomy promoting serving practices could be later coded. On the second day, children completed the Eating in the Absence of Hunger (EAH) task to measure child appetite regulation. Mothers also completed the Child Eating Behavior Questionnaire (CEBQ) to measure other aspects of child appetite regulation (food responsiveness, satiety responsiveness, and emotional overeating). Maternal autonomy promotion during serving was assessed using seven separate measures of child and maternal behavior. Principal components analyses of these serving measures yielded three components: allows child choice, child serves food, and mother does not restrict. Consistent with hypotheses, maternal autonomy promoting serving practices (i.e., allows child choice and does not restrict) were negatively associated with maternal reports of child food responsiveness and emotional overeating (CEBQ). The results for the EAH task were more complex-mothers who were autonomy promoting in their serving practices had children who ate the most in the absence of hunger, but this linear effect was moderated somewhat by a quadratic effect, with moderate levels of autonomy promotion during serving associated with the greatest child EAH., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To examine empirically participant and household characteristics associated with Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) graduation and to determine whether they differ across 2 counties., Design: Survey of EFNEP participants from 2011 to 2012., Setting: Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program sites serving limited-resource families in 1 rural and 1 urban/suburban county in Washington State., Participants: Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program participants (urban/suburban: n = 647; rural: n = 569)., Main Outcome Measure: Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program completion/graduation., Analysis: Multivariate logistic regression was used to examine associations of participant (ethnicity, race, age, education, pregnancy status, and nutrition knowledge/behavior at baseline) and household (number of people in the house, place of residence, and public assistance services) characteristics with EFNEP graduation., Results: Associations were moderated by county. For the urban/suburban county, participants living with more people (after controlling for the total number of adults) were more likely to graduate. For the rural county, participants living with fewer total adults (after controlling for the total number in the house) and those with better food safety practices at baseline were more likely to graduate., Conclusions and Implications: This study aids in understanding which participants are more or less likely to complete EFNEP successfully, and therefore can inform strategies aimed at increasing graduation rates., (Copyright © 2016 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To develop a scientifically based childhood obesity prevention program supporting child eating self-regulation and taste preferences. This article describes the research methods for the Strategies for Effective Eating Development program. A logic model is provided that depicts a visual presentation of the activities that will be used to guide the development of the prevention program., Design: Randomized, controlled prevention program, pretest, posttest, 6 months, and 12 months., Setting: Two sites: Houston, TX and Pasco, WA. Each trial will last 7 weeks with 8-10 mother-child dyads in each arm (prevention and control)., Participants: Recruitment at Head Start districts (Texas; n = 160) and Inspire Child Development Center including Early Childhood Education and Head Start (Washington; n = 160). Sixteen trials with 16-20 parent-child dyads per trial will provide adequate power to detect moderate effects., Intervention: Multicomponent family-based prevention program incorporating a dialogue approach to adult learning and self-determination theory., Main Outcome Measures: Child assessments will include observed taste preferences, caloric compensation, and eating in the absence of hunger. Parent assessments will include parent-reported feeding, feeding emotions, acculturation, child eating behaviors, child food preferences, and child dietary intake. Heights and weights will be measured for parent and child., Analysis: A multilevel growth modeling analysis will be employed to consider the nested nature of the data: time points (level 1) within families (level 2) within trials (level 3)., (Copyright © 2016 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Although research shows that "food parenting practices" can impact children's diet and eating habits, current understanding of the impact of specific practices has been limited by inconsistencies in terminology and definitions. This article represents a critical appraisal of food parenting practices, including clear terminology and definitions, by a working group of content experts. The result of this effort was the development of a content map for future research that presents 3 overarching, higher-order food parenting constructs--coercive control, structure, and autonomy support--as well as specific practice subconstructs. Coercive control includes restriction, pressure to eat, threats and bribes, and using food to control negative emotions. Structure includes rules and limits, limited/guided choices, monitoring, meal- and snacktime routines, modeling, food availability and accessibility, food preparation, and unstructured practices. Autonomy support includes nutrition education, child involvement, encouragement, praise, reasoning, and negotiation. Literature on each construct is reviewed, and directions for future research are offered. Clear terminology and definitions should facilitate cross-study comparisons and minimize conflicting findings resulting from previous discrepancies in construct operationalization., (© The Author(s) 2016. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Life Sciences Institute. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)