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Intestinal parasitic infections caused by intestinal helminthes and protozoa are the most common human infections endemic throughout the world especially in tropical and subtropical countries including Nepal. This study was conducted to study the prevalence of intestinal parasites among patients visiting Sub-Regional Hospital, Dadeldhura, Nepal. Altogether 480 stool samples were collected from April 2017- October 2017. Microscopic examination of stool was done by using formal-ether concentration technique in the Microbiology Laboratory of Sub-Regional Hospital, Dadeldhura Nepal. The overall prevalence rate was found to be 10.625%. The prevalence of parasitic infection was higher in males (52.94%) than in females (47.06%). In the age group below 15 years, the prevalence was found to be higher (52.94 %) than other age groups. Total 6 species of intestinal parasites; 2 (33.33%) were protozoan parasites viz. cysts and trophozoites of Giardia lamblia, and cysts of Entamoeba histolytica, and 4 (66.67%) were helminths viz. ova of Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichuria, Hymenolepis nana, and Ancylostoma duodenale. The infection rate was found to be higher in people taking normal tap water. The study concluded that intestinal protozoan infection is still a public health problem of concern among the people of Dadeldhura. The prevalence of intestinal protozoan infection was found to be high in children and low educated groups in Dadeldhura. Thus, health education along with infection management actions and awareness programs for sanitation improvements are required to reduce protozoan infections.

The inadequacy of micronutrients, namely essential vitamins and minerals in the human diet, manifests a wide range of moderate to serious health concerns collectively known as micronutrient malnutrition. It affects half of the global population, and food-based strategies such as balanced diet, supplementation and food fortification are effective. The balanced diet and dietary supplementation are desirable and sustainable; however, their efficacy is uncertain due to the required demands to improve dietary habits. Interestingly, food fortification – addition of micronutrients to processed foods - supplies micronutrients without the need to alter eating habits and unquestionably stands out as a systematic approach to moderate the statistical rise in micronutrient malnutrition. On the other hand, biofortification - plant breeding and/or genetic engineering - is a convenient and sustainable strategy with myriad possibilities to augment micronutrients status that could endure through generations. These approaches coupled with meticulously organized innovative policies and a competent food value chain will indeed aid in addressing the micronutrient deficiency toward building a productive and efficient generation.

Background The prevalence of extended-spectrum \(\beta\)-lactamase (ESBL) and AmpC \(\beta\)-lactamase (ABL) producing Enterobacteriaceae is increasing rapidly across the world. Members of Enterobacteriaceae like E. coli and Klebsiella spp. exhibit antimicrobial resistance mainly due to the production of beta-lactamase enzymes like extended-spectrum βlactamases, AmpC β-lactamases, and carbapenemases. These bacteria are frequently reported in sewage effluents of hospital and municipal sewerage systems indicating sewage as a promising source for dissemination of such drug-resistant pathogens. However, in most of the developing countries including Nepal, the major portion of sewage is discharged in water sources without proper treatment and disinfection. This study was undertaken to access the prevalence of ESBL and ABL producing E. coli and Klebsiella spp. in sewage effluents of Dharan, Nepal. Results A total of 235 bacteria were isolated, out of which 103 (43.83%) were E. coli and 132 (56.17%) were Klebsiella spp. ESBL production was seen in 157 (66.81%) isolates. Among them, 89 (56.69%) were Klebsiella spp. and 68 (43.31%) were E. coli. 66.02% of total isolated E. coli and 67.42% of total isolated Klebsiella spp. showed production of ESBL enzymes. ABL production was seen in 133 (56.59%) isolates. Among them, 54 (40.60%) were E. coli and 79 (59.40%) were Klebsiella spp. 52.43% of the isolated E. coli and 59.85% of isolated Klebsiella spp. were found producing ABL enzyme. Conclusions The results indicate that there is a high prevalence of ESBL and ABL producing E. coli and Klebsiella spp. in sewage effluents of Dharan. Effective treatment of sewage effluents must be ensured before discharging the sewage into the environment. National guidelines for discharging the municipal sewage must be immediately amended and an effective treatment system before discharge must be implemented. Dissemination of such drug-resistant bacteria in the human population leading to severe public health emergency is likely to occur from sewage contamination, so further study and surveillance and effective prevention and control measures are necessary.

The main objective of this research is to prepare inundation map of a section of Babai Basin and to find out the inundated areas for different return periods. In order to achieve the objectives, Geographic Information System (GIS) and HEC-RAS along with HEC-GeoRAS extension were used as tools. Coordinates were used as primary parameter and were obtained from survey to generate geometric data such as Triangular Irregular Networks (TIN), streamline, river bank and flow paths. After importing the geometry data into HEC-RAS, hydraulic modelling was applied by using flow data as main input. As a result, the watershed area of the Babai basin has been successfully modelled and map showing the flooded areas along the Babai basin has been delineated. The flooded area was geometrically overlaid on the topographic map to outline the affected areas. The area under the influence of the flood were assessed which shows that about 49% of total inundated areas comprises farming land. Also a sensitivity analysis was performed to predict the change in percentage of flooded areas when Maning’s parameter was increased by 10% and when kept same in both banks and channel. However, differences in figure of inundated areas are insignificant to variations made in Maning’s n.