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This paper takes the late Qajar court and harem as a historically specific site through which we can examine the complex and diverse histories of slavery within the region in the nineteenth century, as well as the ways in which hierarchies of race, gender, and sex functioned as constitutive elements of this institution. I examine a particular albeit very elite site, Nasir al-Din Shah's harem, occupied by a variety of enslaved and formerly enslaved constituents who were a product of the evolving slave trade. The essay ends by zooming in on the lives (and afterlives) of two eunuchs, Aziz Khan and Agha Bahram, who were part of the servant class of Gulistan Palace during Nasir al-Din Shah's reign, and whose life trajectories offer us some insight into the racial and gendered legacies of late nineteenth-century slavery in Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The fall of the Qajar dynasty and the rise of the Pahlavi government marked the beginning of important changes in Iran. Reza Shah's reign (1925–1941) is significant in shaping the intellectual foundations of modern Iran because of the state's efforts to establish a modern government and create a modern society. The idea of one state, one culture, and one nation as a fundamental principle in state-building predates his coming to power, so, alongside state-building projects, Reza Shah undertook major cultural reforms. He established new institutions and organizations to define and propagate concepts such as national unity, national identity, loyalty to the monarchy, and some elements of modernity. This article examines how one of these institutions, Sazman-e Parvaresh-e Afkar [Thought Development Organization], active between 1938 and 1941, contributed to reconstructing Iranian national identity. It specifically analyzes the activities of the 'Public Speech Commission', a branch of this institution that sought to guide public opinion towards modernity and national unity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present article investigates the close tie between political authority and the legitimacy of 'lesser jihad' in Shi'ism, or belligerence towards the outer world. The question of authority within this minor branch of Islam has been the subject of lively and prolonged controversies. Since the 10th century, the absence of a respected and universally recognized religio-political reference point has challenged the legitimacy of 'lesser jihad'. Here, the Shia approach towards the legitimacy of warfare during Occultation is examined through two periods in Persian history, namely the Safavid and Qajar dynasties. The article aims to show how the clergy-state relationship in these two periods changed the method of waging 'lesser jihad', and how the latter, in turn, redefined that relationship. Towards this aim, Persian and Arabic manuscripts are consulted, alongside existing literature on jihad in Shi'ism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iranian copper coins of the Qajar era--all described by the word falus--have a great variety of designs, weights, and sizes . These coins sometimes also include letters and phrases that are undeciphered to date . This article uses siyāq script to read some of these mystery notations for the first time . The multiple fascinating examples of siyāq numbers found thereby on Qajar coins and countermarks show that, contrary to former belief, some copper coins of this era had specific face values written on them in the siyāq script . This research uses these copper coins to take a small step toward a better understanding of the monetary system of the Qajar era by introducing several denominations never reported before . Finally, as siyāq script had never been discovered on coins, this new possibility now allows numismatists and scholars to revisit and correct former interpretations or to introduce and decipher new coins in the future . [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The status of the Jews of Iran during the Qajar dynasty, mutated, because of being a minority among the Shiite dominant group and adjusted itself through the processes of annexation within Iranian society. Iranian Jews engaged in power relations with two main groups: European envoys and representatives of the Qajar dynasty. The ability to endure in the changing political environment of Iran as a religious minority was facilitated by the strategic dimension of silence that was used as a medium in establishing power relations with dominant elites within the Iranian society. This paper aims to use the practice of silence as a theoretical framework to understand how Iranian Jewry, between the end of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, managed to preserve their Judaic practices in Iran despite being a religious minority. Silence operated as being both an instrument for leading groups to control them through the practice of 'silencing' them, and as a way used by Iranian Jews themselves to resist and escape possible persecutions and social control by the dominant elites. Silence both in its oppressive and resistance forms acted to create a dynamic relationship between Iranian Jews and dominant elites working in Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This article tries to analyze the changes of Waqfs while presenting a clear description of the Waqfs of Astan in Qajar, identifying the peak points of Waqfs and its influential components. Methodology: It has used social history and some theoretical approaches, descriptive-analytical historical method, and interviews. Finding: The annual average of immovable Waqfs in Qajar is about one and a half pieces. The most frequent are as follows: Special expenses are 73 percent and 17.66 percent for Khodam, 36.62 percent of cases are farms. 69.52 percent is located in Khorasan. 45 percent of the donors of this age belong to the upper middle class. 35 percent have left the responsibility to Astan and 62 percent have not appointed a supervisor. The annual average of Waqfs during the times when one person was the Custodians and governor was 3.88, pieces While for the years when he was only a Custodians, it was 1.31. In twenty-five years, in line with 27 percent of the total actions of the Custodians, about half of the Waqfs have been established. In addition, the character of six of the Custodians was evaluated as positive, two as average and two as weak. Compared to two decades of waqf decline in which the actions of the Custodians accounted for 15 percent of the total actions, the character of four Custodians was evaluated as positive and four as weak. 84 percent of the years of the Nasseri period were stable, the highest waqf amount with an annual average of 2.7 percent is related to this period and the change in the majority of the transfer of Custodians in favor of Astan is also from the Nasseri age. Conclusion: Having social status, to be evaluated positively, the action of the king that leads to religious trust, Social stability and organizational order of Astan, the social position and performance of the Custodians, who have social reflection and the ability to gain trust, have had positive impact on the developments of Waqf. In other words, if the governor or Custodians has a reliable, powerful personality and has a high social identity, while having executive experience, it was more effective in attracting and maintaining Waqfs. In the cities that have the highest amount of endowments, in addition to financial ability, cultural affinity and historical history have had a positive effect. However, the instability did not create a permanent obstacle for the Waqf, rather it reduced its dispersion. Although the concept of "felt needs" is suitable for explanation, it should be considered in the context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Kerman region stands out as one of the most significant mining areas globally, owing to its extensive and abundant mineral resources. Bam County, situated in the southeastern part of Kerman, has historically served as a crucial hub connecting the southeast of Iran with Sistan and Afghanistan, attributed to its distinctive geological and geomorphological characteristics. Enjoying considerable commercial and military importance since the Sassanid era, Bam County has garnered attention in archaeological research as a strategically vital region. The exploration of Bam's archaeological sites becomes imperative for historical governments, highlighting the need to investigate and comprehend ancient centers engaged in metal smelting and mining activities. Consequently, an archaeological survey of the central part of Bam County was initiated in 2018-2019 with the specific objective of identifying metal smelting workshops and ancient mines. This article presents the outcomes of a field survey conducted in the central part of Bam County, shedding light on evidence of metal smelting centers, furnaces, and historical mining activities. The primary research inquiries center around the chronology of mining evidence in the central part of Bam County, the types of metals extracted, and the processes involved in metal mining and metallurgy within this region. Employing field and documentary methods, the research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach. The study identified and examined eight sites showcasing evidence of smelting and slag, one ancient mine, and two active mines. These sites have been associated with the extraction and processing of metals and elements such as tin, zinc, lead, silver, iron, and, to a lesser extent, gold. Notably, the substantial volume of zinc and zinc oxide processing in seven sites holds significance. Although cultural materials for chronological dating were absent in the investigated sites, historical sources indicate that the extraction and smelting of these metals in the region date back to at least the 3rd century AH (9th century AD) and persisted until the Qajar period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baghdad, portrayed by Yaqoubi (d. AH 292/AD 905) in Kitâb al-Buldân as "having no peer in the East and the West", continued to be described throughout centuries as "heaven on Earth." Important for many reasons, this city and its surroundings became the topic of travelogues (seyahatname) of three female Iranian hadjis as they travelled to the region. The first travelogue written by these three female authors who lived during the Qajar Dynasty is Safarnama-ye Makkah by Mihrimah Khanom; Rūznāma-ye Safar-e ʿAtabāt va-Makkah travelogue by Sakineh Sultan; Rūznāma-ye Safar-e Hajj: Atabāt va Darbār-e Nāsırī by Aliye Khanom Shirazi. Based on these three travelogues, this study analyzed these authors' observations regarding the social life in Baghdad and their perception of various sects. In the work, we first addressed why the city and its surroundings were important for Iranians. Finally, we introduced the writers of the travelogues analysed in this work and discussed in detail the chapters of their works regarding Baghdad and its surroundings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to scrutinize the identity layers in artworks of the Qajar era. Identity in art has different layers and each layer depends on different aspects. the Qajar Era is one of the culturally productive periods in Iran. It also had widespread relations with the West in different matters. Thus several identity layers in the culture and artworks can be seen in this period. The research tries to answer this question: what are the identity layers and their priorities found in the Lithographed Manuscripts with religious themes in the Qajar Era? The analysis of 10 manuscripts with various dates shows that there are four identity layers: archaism, Persian-Islamic, Western-style and Islamic-Shiā tendency in artworks of the Qajar Era and each type of artwork, some layers have more importance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article reveals how engagements with the photographic archives of premodern Iran and the Persian carpet break open transtemporal, affective, and queer interplays in diaspora. Examining a digital remix of a photograph of a Qajar princess, 'Ismat al-Dowlah, from the archives of nineteenth-century Iran, the article argues that the digital (mis)use of archives exposes what forms such as the Persian carpet and photography erase: each medium's close ties with power, labor, gender, and sexuality. It develops a relational approach to understandings of photography that highlights the performative registers for a diasporic gaze while also troubling the imperial investment in understanding photography's history and its practices as a new technology that developed in the nineteenth century. This work considers how unlearning the history of Qajar photography entails deemphasizing the Qajar's king Naser Al Din Shah's fascination with photography's technological newness and instead exposes what desires his fascination was tethered to. This piece brings into conversation techno-historical overlaps between carpet weaving, the Jacquard machine, and computational arts, opening up critical questions about gender vis-à-vis production, labor, and computation within both carpets and computers as media interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Innumerable modernization measures were implemented in nineteenth-century Iran, in what might be called a process of translation. In the course of translating new ideas into the Iranian context by means of applying old expressions, Iranian legal language underwent sequences of change. To gain a better understanding of current struggles over the proper interpretation of some basic concepts, the paper seeks to explain how the concept of freedom was modified, by reference to Koselleck's "space of experience" and the "horizon of expectation". The analysis is based on Mostašār od-Doule's treatise Yek kalame ("One word"), one of the most important nineteenth-century Iranian source texts, which greatly influenced the further development of the Iranian freedom movement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the second half of the nineteenth century, practitioners of law in Iran were looking for more flexibility in contractual forms, especially those used to conclude routine transactions of properties and services. They increasingly made use of a type of contract named muṣālaḥa-nāma , derived from the legal concept of ṣulḥ and defined primarily as a means to arrange the amicable settlement of disputes. The present contribution attempts to categorise the kind of transactions for which this universal contractual type could be employed and raises the question what advantages such a "new" contractual form might have entailed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines various aspects of conditional sales (bayʿ-i sharṭ) and other types of loans in Qajar Iran (1796-1925). Islamic law prohibited usury, but Shiʿi jurists found a way to legalize money lending at interest. In this paper, I explore how these transactions occurred in practice and what features they had. To this end, I consider three groups of bayʿ-i sharṭ deeds from the National Archives of Iran, discussing how each case proceeded and how differences between cases reveal the ways in which this type of transaction functioned. While similar types of transactions were allowed in other regions and schools of law, the details of Shiʿi legal devices were distinctive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the beginning of the XIXth century the relations of dependency and inter-dependency between the Iranian monarch and foreign officials became an integral part of Iranian political life. During the Iranian Constitutional Movement (1905–1911) nascent Iranian nationalism harshly condemned the Qajars as tyrants and lackeys of foreign powers. Muhammad 'Ali Shah (r.1907–1909), the first Qajar sovereign who had to share his powers with the representative assembly, was quickly discredited by his political opponents as despot and Russian puppet, an accusation that seemed to be proved when the deposed Muhammad 'Ali returned to Iran from his exile and launched a military campaign. This study represents an attempt to shed more light on the relations between Muhammad 'Ali and Russian officials, especially in the context of his return campaign of 1911. Relying mostly on unpublished Russian archival sources, this paper proposes a critical assessment of Muhammad 'Ali's link with Russia, avoiding the habitual reductionist scheme of 'patron-client' relations and putting more emphasis on the role of agency in Russian foreign policy in Iran as well as the proper intentions and ambitions of the Qajar princely elite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advent of "modern" education in Iran and its acceptance by political and cultural elites dates to the Qajar era. But the elitist nature of state reforms prevented modern education from spreading throughout society until the Pahlavi era. Especially during the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, modern education reached most segments of the population, including religious families from the middle classes. This research is based on Persian-language documents and informed by the English-language historiography. The article finds that the Islamic Education Society (Jāmeʿeh-ye taʿlimat-e eslāmi) propagated religious modernism through a national network of private schools beginning in the 1940s. In the 1950s and 1960s private cultural foundations used the Islamic Education Society's model to establish the Alavi, Kamāl, and Refāh schools in Tehran. The network that supported them was a reflection of the revolutionary movement and a vehicle for its organization by the 1970s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Qajar period is the beginning of many important and long-lasting developments in Iran's contemporary era. Among these developments, we should mention the changes in Iranian arts and the aspects that these arts had with them. Planning and backgrounding were among the aspects that entered Iranian painting with the entrance of Western art elements. Mirzababa was one of the most important painters of the first Qajar period, and the way he used these elements became an unwritten and frequently used pattern among artists. The purpose of the present article is to analyze the background of his works and to understand his backgrounding. The research is a theoretical and a descriptive-analytical research. The statistical population of the research consists of the works of Mirzababa and because the number of works that have reached us is limited, the sample size is all of his works. The research data show that Mirzababa had been backgrounding according to the type of art or used medium. Backgrounds have a general pattern or contractual elements that have an interior, exterior, or a combination of both spaces rather than the used medium. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rule of the Qajar dynasty was a vibrant period for the Iranian taʿziyeh tradition; the genre's anonymous dramatists not only developed the verse of the central plays of the Karbala cycle but innovated new narrative content. This study investigates one such innovation, the curious appearance of two new characters in the climactic play The Martyrdom of Imam Husain. They are the Dervish of Kabul and Sultan Qais of India, both of whom Husain encounters shortly before his martyrdom and neither of whom were previously mentioned in historical literature or religious traditions pertaining to Karbala. Through analysis of fifteen taʿziyeh renditions of Husain's martyrdom dating from 1204/1790 to the 1950s, including rare manuscripts, this study provides a date window for the incorporation of these characters and argues that they were added to complete a trilogy of trials faced by Husain at Karbala. It also traces their literary origins and considers their social significance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mīrzā Ḥasan Rushdīyeh (1860(?)–1944) was a lower-ranking Azeri-Iranian cleric, constitutionalist, and educational reformer who was a major pioneer of new (jadīd) primary schools in Iran. This article shows that in 1889 Rushdīyeh, through training he had received in Beirut, introduced new schools into Iran based on changed pedagogy and modern disciplines. It argues that although the schools drew fierce opposition from maktab custodians and certain Qajar courtiers, they gradually increased in authority until the Reza Shah state appropriated them, with some modifications, as normative schooling called the dabestān. In English and Persian scholarship, we lack a substantial history of Rushdīyeh's new schools. Drawing on previously unexamined sources, including his Iran and Ottoman diaries, this article examines Rushdīyeh's educational work in the broader intellectual and political history of the period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the textual and performative functions of early women's writings on the example of three accounts of the pilgrimage to Mecca written during the Qajar era by Mehrmāh Khānom ʿEsmat al-Saltaneh (1880–81), the anonymous Hājiyeh Khānom ʿAlaviyeh Kermāni (1892–94), and Sakineh Soltān Vaqār al-Dowleh Esfahāni Kuchak (1899–1901). It ponders on the relationships between the female writers and textuality, their readers and, finally, the diary personas they created. It claims that their writings emerged in the process of negotiating the then existing, masculine models of textuality and authorial authority. By rejecting the monologic authoritativeness of literature and textuality, the women diarists transformed their texts into a space for dialogue—including dialogue with themselves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The travelogues from the late-19th century voyages of Iranians offer important knowledge on the political, social and cultural history of the modern state. Attention has been directed mainly towards the diaries of travels in Europe, less to the works recording the impressions of those who, for various reasons, travelled within the country during the Qâjâr era. Among these, the Khâterât-e Hâjj Sayyâh , by Mirzâ Mohammad 'Ali Mahallâti, better known as Hâjj Sayyâh, is of remarkable interest. The article examines several aspects of this 'travel diary'; in particular their revelation of the author's critical and pessimistic vision of his homeland and those who are currently governing it. We observe the processes of defining a national 'self' in contrast to the 'other', influenced by comparisons between Europe and the needs for modernisation, but also from memories of greatness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of TÜBA-AR: Turkish Academy of Sciences, Journal of Archaeology is the property of Turkish Academy of Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article examines cultural attitudes on race and African slavery in late Qajar chronicles prior to abolition in 1929. In contrast to previous scholarship, Qajar textual sources reveal that elite cultural attitudes were relevant in structuring the social conditions of enslavement in Iran. Visual depictions and narratives about African eunuchs and concubines naturalized the violent acquisition and use of the Other. Slave narratives also bear witness to how such views of African corporeality determined the social worth of eunuchs and concubines in the domestic sphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the questions which characterized the first two decades after the rise of the Qajars to the Iranian throne was the fierce rivalry between the two leading princes during the reign of Fath-ʿAli Shah, namely, ʿAbbas Mirza Nayib al-Saltanah and Muhammad-ʿAli Mirza Daulatshah. The main cause of this rivalry was the nomination of the former to the position of crown prince and regent instead of the latter, who was the elder of the two. The aim of this article is to explain the reasons for this seemingly unjust decision on the part of Fath-ʿAli, and to discuss the intensity of this princely rivalry, analyzing its repercussions on various domestic and external affairs during the first decades of Qajar rule in Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the 1770s onwards, there was a struggle for the soul of Shiʿism in Iran – a struggle over what the true nature of religion should be. On one side was the dominant Uṣūlī religious hierarchy, focused on the Shariʿa and asserting that its rationalist methodology was the path to true knowledge. On the other side was a succession of four movements: Akhbārī, Shaykhī, Bābī, and Bahāʾī. This paper examines the evidence for the continuity between these four movements by looking at patterns of affiliation among individuals and families in Iran. It also describes how, despite different ideas regarding the source of true knowledge, the factors that united these four movements were their rejection of excessive clerical control of individual and social life and their belief that religious life should be focused on love for the representative of the Divine among humanity and on the development of personal spiritual qualities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Before discussing the establishment and functioning of the first real leprosarium in Iran, a brief explanation is given of the pathology of leprosy, the various names are listed under which it was known in Persian, and the earliest archeological evidence of its occurrence is presented. Also, societal behavior in Imperial Iran towards lepers is highlighted, while reference is made to the earliest medical descriptions of leprosy in Persian. Little is known about the occurrence of leprosy in Iran over the centuries, as evidenced by the lack of knowledge about its prevalence among medical practitioners and institutions in Iran, even as late as the 1920s. Although segregated villages with lepers existed prior to 1926, it was only as of then that the Mehrab Khan village became the first true Iranian leprosarium, when regular institutional medical treatment was offered by American missionary physicians. The funding agencies, medical personnel and treatment, the living environment of lepers and their numbers in Mehrab Khan are discussed as well as how its population size and status changed over time, and how it was transformed into a structural component of public medical care. Finally and briefly, the establishment and functioning of two other Iranian leprosaria is discussed as well as the slow but sure disappearance of the disease in Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sahebqeraniyeh garden also known as Niavaran garden is artwork from the Qajar Period and it still continues to exist. This garden has undergone considerable changes. The construction of a vast part of the garden was commenced during the late 19th century AD and lasted till the 1960s. As a result of the constructions during the second Pahlavi era for making it also a residential place, the important parts of the garden were separated and some of the buildings were destroyed. The plan of garden has been extensively changed in the northern sections and, more importantly, its Qajar layout has undergone a radical change. Thus, the following questions can be raised: How has the authentic layout of the garden been during the Qajar Era? How has the garden’s evolutions trend influenced its layout? The article aims at attaining the evolution and change trends of the garden as well as finding its overall layout and plan so that it can be used as a basis for conservation purposes and increasing its spatial identity. The present study has been conducted based on descriptive and historical research method. Meanwhile paying attention to the history of this artwork and through taking advantage of the documents, historical texts, historical and aerial photos and matching them with the garden’s remnants, efforts will be made to reveal the garden’s evolution trend so that its authentic plan in the Qajar Era can be obtained. The results indicate that the garden has passed through four historical periods. Accordingly, Sahebqeraniyeh garden has been formed before the Naseri Period; but, it has found its identifiable authentic plan during Naser al-Din Shah’s kingship period and during the 1840s. In this period, the southern yard had been connected to the main palace in a stratified form. The whole complex consisted of three parts of the northern garden, the southern garden and the area in the periphery of the main palace. During the late 1870s, Sahebqeraniyeh mansion took the place of Niavaran palace and the mansion’s transformation caused changes to the garden’s structure. Since the late Qajar era, vaster changes occurred, northern garden’s area and some of the buildings were destroyed and the southern garden was separated during the second Pahlavi era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article adopts a spatially grounded approach to the study of everyday urban crime involving ruffians (lutis), seminarians, and sayyids (descendants of the Prophet Muhammad). It begins by considering the types of crimes and punishments prevalent in Qajar Iran before examining the spatial exceptions to the operation of law in the form of sanctuaries (bast). It then explores exceptional circumstances under which crime and violence went unpunished, such as large-scale mobilizations involving powerful urban notables. Conflicts over Islamic endowment resources, embedded spatially in shrines and mosques, pitted neighborhoods against one another, with the state playing the role of a mediator and trying to manage social conflict. Raids into Jewish quarters reflected spatially structured conflicts, as well, because the appropriation of economic resources was at stake. Much like sanctuaries, Jewish quarters had an exceptional spatial status since violence, pillage, and plunder could occur there with relative impunity during specific historical moments. This article then analyzes the economic activities of luti s, who were often part of extortion rackets as a supplementary or primary form of employment. The article ends by considering the social biography of a well-known luti whose life exemplifies how lutis faced state sanction when engaged in petty crimes but acted with impunity when operating as part of a powerful vertical social network. I argue that the daily patterns of violence involving marginal groups revolved around access to the resources of the specific aforementioned spaces and that sanctuaries created opportunities for these marginal groups to evade the implementation of the law. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The cover of the Winter 2018 edition of the journal is presented in addition to information about the journal, the history honor society Phi Alpha Theta, and articles published in the journal on topics including historian Hayden White, historical narrative and politics, and Iran in the late 19th century.

The article examines how a public health crisis involving epidemics among various classes in Qajar Iran during the early 1890s precipitated and perhaps justified public demonstrations known as the Tobacco Protest, and played a significant role of the development of the Constitutional Revolution of the early 20th century.

The article focuses on public attitudes towards LGBT issues in Iran. Topics discussed include criminalization of homosexuality for the lower-classes during the Qajar dynasty, disapproval of politician Ayatollah Khomeini for same-sex relationships after 1979 Iranian Revolution, and laws related to gender-reassignment surgery for transgender people.

During Qajar era, just like the earlier eras, the pedagogy was not provided to the public. The nobles and aristocrats used to appoint a tutor and most of talented and clever students have been deprived from pedagogy because of inadequate number of schools. This era is considered as the era of cultural changes and people movements. The era is also known as the era of passing from pre-modernistic Iran to developed Iran. Given the increased relations between Iran and Europe and construction of schools and sending students to Europe, different sciences were gradually propagated in Iran. Abbas Mirza imitated intentionally the similar corrective process devised in Ottoman Empire during Sultan Selim III sovereignty and started a military corrective plan entitled new system including introduction of European military technology and new methods of training soldiers. Thereby, other measures started to be taken including sending over students to overseas, translation of European books, establishment of print house, newspaper publish and other than these developments and changes made Iran shortcomings to become clear against Europe. Therefore, the first steps for education system development were taken in this era by Abbas Mirza and Ghaem Magham Farahani and followed by Mirza Taghi khan Amir Kabir. Thereby, the preliminary stages of modern era were taken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of College of Education / Wasit is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

One of the most exceptional among the world renowned historical treasures is the repository of valuables of the olden shahs of Persia found in the Jewels Museum in Tehran. The outstanding jewel among those kept there is the diamond called Daryā-ye Nur, weighing about 182 carats. The history of this stone, according to the literature on the subject, starts in seventeenth century India, in the city of Golconda. Analysis of primary sources, however, allows for the supposition that this stone may have a longer history. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The findings of this research, which have been collected by historical-analytical method, indicate that the pattern of development in the Qajar era is consistent with the pattern of unbalanced development. In this sense, by starting educational, political and military reforms in the Qajar era specially Nasser-al-Din Shah, gradually the cultural structure apart from the traditional political structure. This development provided the basis for the emergence of new intellectuals and elites with new political ideas in the field of governance methods. However, the attenuation of political structure and the backwardness of political development from cultural development faced with some obstacles. Political system instead of creating a development along with gradual cultural development and consolidating its position through the persuasion of the community, in fact to maintain integrity in the social system was resorted to force and preferred force and compulsion to persuasion. The kind of reaction and opposition of the political power structure against the modern intellectual movement, which contained new political demands in the area of governance and freedom, led to the weakness and, finally, the collapse of the Qajar political system and the constitutional revolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paintings of Qajar dynasty are the most thriving and important artworks in Qajar dynasty. Studying Qajar painting helps importantly to identify and study the art and culture of Qajar dynasty. Existence of lots of paintings, diversity of designs, color and subject, combining tradition and modernism were factors for selecting this dynasty to investigate. As the painting is the visual history of each era, sociology studying of painting in this dynasty will make one to understand common culture and thinking of people in that society. Amount of influence of western culture especially during Naser al-Din Shah Era has been at the same time with the creation of these paintings and combination of these paintings with our past legacy schools lead us to the thinking and willing of Qajar artists. As Qajar art and different kinds of painting art were the foundation of contemporary Iran's painting by a research around this Dynasty, the reasons of excellence, lacks and origins of contemporary painting of Iran can be understood. Research methodology at the beginning was based on library studies while there were little reading resources in books, magazines, internet, documentation, presence in places and photography and then studying of what was seen heard and read. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Qajar dynasty painting began in the reign of Fath-Ali Shah (1797–1834) and ended with the death of Naser al-Din Shah (1831–1896). In this period, art was influenced by the government; new rules assigned to art as to sociopolitical conditions and figurative paintings were exploited as a tool in governing the country. In the paintings ascribed to Fath-Ali Shah's period, women also appear alongside the images of men who were principally historical, political and religious key figures of their own time. The significant status of women was the most important factor in this. These images were not merely limited to eminent characters as musicians, dancers, servants, acrobats images were drawn as delicately and magnificently as male images and even enjoyed better radiance, vivacity, pep, variety and tonality than them. Male images were elegantly drawn in formal costumes, often with the same composition. The similarities and differences of male and female images in Qajar paintings can be assessed according to the criteria of composition, colour, positioning, and the number of figures, assimilation, the intricacies and the degree of characterization. This study also stresses the characteristics of men's and women's images in the paintings. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The article presents the author's research conclusion on a tent from Prince Władysław Czartoryski's collection, indicating that the object was made at the beginning of the 19th century and had a ceremonial significance. It mentions the tent has three walls-the back wall, and two side walls, in the form of irregular quadrilaterals; and also mentions a tent held in the Victoria & Albert museum collection, that described as a shah's tent from the times of the Quajar dynasty.

A series of local geographical texts appeared throughout Iran in the 1870s and 1880s in the context of an attempt by the Qājār dynasty to collect information on its imperial possessions. These texts combine the instrumental approach of compiling knowledge for the court with literary traditions in local historiography. This article explores these local geographical writings through theories on identity and space, arguing that these texts reflect the shifting spatial imagination of Persianate elites in the context of rapid social and economic change. These texts are an alternate entry point for viewing the politics of identity in Qājār Iran, challenging the teleological approach to the emergence of nationalism in secondary literature. Taking the close relationship between territory and community as a starting point, this article argues that expressions of regional socio-economic unities, which are a key feature of the geographical writings of Iranian elites, reflect the consolidation of regional identities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The history of Yazd in Qajar era shows several political-social incidents in different periods which have greatly affected the social, cultural, economic and even physical historical-ancient life of the city. Investigating the interaction between Iranians and the residents from different religions during the aforementioned era is interest of the study. This interaction has experienced some fluctuations including peaceful friendships as well as brutal conflicts. The present research is a scientific-investigative effort to perform a historical, periodical, and at the same time documentary and analytical study on the extent, type and method of interactions of the majority of Yazd residents such as Shia Muslims, with the religious minority living in Yazd or non-local Christians temporary living in Yazd for the purpose of performing preaching and advertising programs in Yazd during the Qajar era. The researchers' hypothesis is as follow: in the Qajar era there was a mutual communication, conflicts and correspondence between Christian minorities (evangelists) and Shia Muslims in Yazd most of which proves a relationship and peaceful coexistence between them. This study applies a comparative-historical methodology as well as examines the academic literature and field studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Architecture during Qajar dynasty has witnessed significant developments. The change which was particularly prevalent in advanced form, was the combination of two function: mosque and school. An important issue in the mosque-school typology is the spatial layout of the space, so that the two functions could maintain their independence and do not cause flaws to each other. The aim of this study is to understand how the combination of religious and educational functions in one building is. In this research Aqa-Bozorg mosque-school is analyzed by heuristic analysis method in order to recognize the different factors such as space and quality of human cognition. The result shows that this place with religious function, is not limited to religious ceremonies, vast assemblies with social or political motivation, rather it could be known as set of usual belief or hidden ones which are existed in profound layer of thinking and culture of society. So not only formal speech or sermon, rather customs, architectural features, art sights and even arrangement of main features in a religious building could convey implication to the audience who are consciously or unconsciously affected and make their ideology based on this. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Travel literature flourished in the Qajar period, as reports rich in political, geographical, and ethnographic detail were officially commissioned from Iranian diplomats and officers who went abroad. Many of these accounts concerned Central Asia and some historians have argued that they served to project Iranian dominance over the region. Others have argued quite the opposite: that these accounts served to articulate cultural and political borders between Central Asia and Iran. In this paper, I will introduce a new source and an alternative approach. Focusing on the little-known travelogue of Esma'il Mir-Panja, an Iranian officer who spent ten years as a captive in Khiva, I will show not only how this travelogue served the interests of the Qajar state, but also how it functioned as a subversive work of satire and an incisive critique of the shah to whom it was dedicated. In other words, I will emphasize the agency of the author as well as the aims of his patrons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As numerous scholars of visual culture have shown, photography plays a critical role in articulating black people's complex relationship to cultural identity and national belonging. This article questions the ability of photography to document and simultaneously pathologize the history, culture and struggle of African slave communities in Iran. It highlights the complex relationship between the ways African slaves are depicted and the ways slave-holders imagine them. How did African slaves imagine themselves? It also investigates the ways crucial forms of historical documentation of events, individuals and contexts were captured in these photographs. How should we read the histories recorded in such images and imaging practices? What kind of historical knowledge might they provide? Can they provide historians and other scholars of the field with historical 'traces' that bear witness to things not put into words? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Privacy is taken from cultural and religious values and belief which are among the rules of the traditional residential architecture which have been shown in different ways in traditional architecture in different ways. Lots of valuable characteristics of the traditional Iranian houses prove the fact that Iranian people kept privacy; nowadays with the penetration of western architectural culture and after Qajar dynasty, a reflection of that style is rarely seen in contemporary residential architecture. This survey is to analyze privacy layering in Iranian architectural houses and as a religious value by the use of the mentioned method (observation, interview, and studying the maps) in the traditional sample of Malaysia as the comparative sample and then compared with the other Malaysian samples. By taking the nature of the objective of the research into considerations, the research method is comparative case study based on qualitative approach. Results of this survey have shown that privacy in different layers were designed for keeping people's independence, and providing the mental and psychological peace of the family member which is completely consistent with Islamic sources; there are some similarities and difference between the Malaysian sample and two samples of the early and late of Qajar period. The conclusion of this study shows the existence of extrovert privacy pattern in Malaysian houses and also existence of introvert privacy pattern in Qajar houses and different spatial categorizations; the privacy keeping principle and approaches in contemporary architecture is applicable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses gift-giving practices in early nineteenth-century Iran as a window onto statecraft, governance, and center-periphery relations in the early Qajar state (1785–1925). It first demonstrates that gifts have a long history in the administrative and political history of Iran, the Persianate world, and broader Eurasia, before highlighting specific features found in Iran. The article argues that the pīshkish, a tributary gift-giving ceremony, constituted a central role in the political culture and economy of Qajar Iran, and was part of the process of presenting Qajar rule as a continuation of previous Iranian royal dynasties. Nevertheless, pīshkish ceremonies also illustrated the challenges Qajar rulers faced in exerting power in the provinces and winning the loyalty of provincial elites. Qajar statesmen viewed gifts and bribes, at least at a discursive level, in different terms, with the former clearly understood as an acceptable practice. Gifts and honors, like the khil‘at, presented to society were part of Qajar rulers' strategy of presenting themselves as just and legitimate. Finally, the article considers the use of gifts to influence diplomacy and ease relations between Iranians and foreign envoys, as well as the ways in which an inadequate gift could cause offense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Present abstract is about two rare large size paintings, each possibly forming a front and back cover of a bookbinding belonging to Early Qajar Period or, what is more probable, a pair of portrait paintings of two Qajar Emperors used as a wall hanging side by side. These paintings are at present in a private collection in Lahore. Both are of the same format and size each measure 44.5 x 30 cm. One of the folios (Painting I) contains a portrait of the founder of the Qajar dynasty i.e. Sultan Fateh Ali Shah (1797 - 1834) along with some of his family members including two crown-wearing ladies. The second folio or Painting II shows the portrait figure of his nephew and successor Qajar Sultan Muhammad Shah (1834-1848). Like predecessors, this King is also shown surrounded by a group of people - all male-either his courtiers or family members. Both the kings are identifiable with their names inscribed each in the form of tughra set inside a medallion with outlines in relief. Although the name of the artist is not known but there is no doubt that both have been rendered by one and the same artist. The paintings have been rendered on a base of thick cardboard with rounded corners. The actual paintings are done in a mixed media of plaster or gypsum (gesso) mixed with oil colors and finally varnished/lacquered. The colors are dusky and dark due to the application of varnish. Back side of both paintings are plain but painted in brick-red color and varnished/lacquered. These paintings are definitely made in a technique that, though introduced during late Safavid Period, was popularized during the Zand period (1779 - 1797) and early Qajar Period (1797 - 1848). On stylistic grounds, both these paintings are datable between 1797 to 1848. Apparently, these are examples of book-binding of early Qajar Period which was famous, among other things, for painted and tooled book-bindings prepared on papier mache, plaster base or gesso work, painted in oil colors and varnished/lacquered. But this is not sure. Alternately, these can be regarded as a pair of portrait paintings of two kings, painted with an identical frame but meant for hanging side by side in a royal room or court as was the custom of the Qajar court. In any case, for us, importance of these folios lies in the fact that Qajar paintings, like the two under study, to the best of my knowledge, have surfaced for the first time in any collection - public or private - in Pakistan. The Qajar Paintings have their origin in the later days of the Safavid art but flourished during the cultural shock of Europeanization and a counter movement of resistance for the survival and revival of indigenous elements in art and culture of Iran - a dualism which still continues in present day Iran. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]