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In response to the conflicting demands between real-time satellite communication and high-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging, we propose a method that aligns the data transmission rate with the imaging data volume. This approach balances SAR performance with the requirements for real-time data transmission. To meet the need for mobile user terminals to access real-time SAR imagery data of their surroundings without depending on large traditional ground data transmission stations, we developed an application system based on filter bank multicarrier offset quadrature amplitude modulation (FBMC-OQAM). To address the interference problem with SAR signals' transmission and reception, we developed a signal sequence based on spaceborne SAR echo and data transmission and reception. This system enables SAR and data transmission signals to share the same frequency band, radio frequency transmission system, and antenna, creating an integrated sensing and communication system. Simulation experiments showed that, compared to the equal power allocation scheme for subcarriers, the echo image signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) improved by 2.79 dB and the data transmission rate increased by 24.075 Mbps. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents an enhanced method for the transmission of 3D video in the Multi-view Video plus Depth (MVD) format over Two-Way Relay Channels (TWRC). Our approach addresses the unique challenges of MVD-based 3D video by combining Hierarchical Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (HQAM), a method that prioritizes data layers based on importance, and Inter-Layer Forward Error Correction (IL-FEC), which protects critical data from errors. These are specifically designed to handle the dual-layer data structure where color data and depth information require different levels of error protection, and it reduces transmission errors and enhances the quality of MVD-based 3D video over TWRC. In the TWRC scenario, the proposed scheme optimizes transmission by reducing the number of relayed bitstreams by half while maintaining high-quality requirements, as demonstrated by significant improvements in the Structural Similarity Index (SSIM) for virtually synthesized views. Furthermore, we identify and optimize the hierarchical modulation parameter (α), which controls the priority and protection levels of different data streams. Systematically varying α reveals its substantial impact on the quality of the reconstructed 3D video, as measured by SSIM. Our results demonstrate that the proposed combination of HQAM and IL-FEC not only maintains the target SSIM of 0.9 for the virtually synthesized view under various relay conditions but also reveals the optimal α value for balancing the error protection between the color and depth map data streams. Notably, while increasing α enhances the protection of critical data (such as color video streams), it may concurrently degrade the quality of less important streams (like depth maps), highlighting the importance of fine-tuning α to achieve the best overall video quality. These findings suggest that our method provides a flexible and effective solution for high-quality 3D video transmission in challenging communication environments, potentially advancing the development of future 3D video delivery systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optical communications and their security have been got a great attention. In this work, a simple, low cost and secure optical system integrating orthogonal frequency division multiplexing-based passive optical network (OFDM-PON) and chaotic theory is proposed. In the proposed system, a novel scheme of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) encryption method is adopted. For privacy of image and video encryption, the process of encryption consists of two processes and a 3D chaotic system is employed. The chaotic system is used to generate the encryption sequences. In the first stage, the first generated chaotic sequence is XORed with the incoming data. While in the second stage, the QAM symbol is remapped using the other two generated chaotic sequences. Generally, the proposed system is designed to provide secure data, videos, and images transmission. The proposed system is simulated and evaluated with a transmission of a 10 Gb/s along 50 km single-mode fiber (SMF). The performance of the proposed system showed that there is a performance enhancement in terms of Peak to average power ratio (PAPR) and bit error rate (BER). The BER of unauthorized user is around 0.6147, while the PAPR is reduced to approximately half. The proposed system is simple and doesn't require complex computations. It requires simple analog multiplexers for its implementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The combination of high-order modulation formats and linewidth-tolerant carrier phase estimation (CPE) can effectively improve spectrum efficiency and relax the limitation of laser linewidth. This paper presents a simple two-stage CPE algorithm for polarization-multiplexed (PM) 32-quadrature amplitude modulation (32-QAM) coherent optical communication systems. The algorithm uses an enhanced QPSK partitioning algorithm combined with a simplified 4th power CPE method for coarse estimation in the initial stage and maximum likelihood (ML) detection in the subsequent fine stage. The CPE algorithm significantly increases the number of symbols used in the first stage of coarse estimation. This results in a significant increase in the stability and reliability of the phase estimation, and the CPE algorithm significantly reduces the computational complexity. The optimal parameters, phase estimation performance, and system performance of the algorithm were investigated by building a 22 Gbaud PM 32-QAM coherent system simulation platform and a 5 Gbaud PM 32-QAM coherent system experimental platform. The results show that the proposed two-stage CPE algorithm has a stronger linewidth tolerance difference than the conventional QPSK, and the two-stage CPE algorithm with an optimal block length of 105 performs comparable to blind phase search (BPS). The optical signal noise Ratio (OSNR) value is 21.2 dB and the bit error rate (BER) is 1.8 χ 10-3 for the optimal block length of 105. The receiving-end DSP unit with a flexible scheme and good communication performance will have potential applications in adaptive elastic optical networks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This manuscript suggests a modulation scheme for exploiting transmission diversity by integrating Alamouti coding and controlling the transmission by intelligent reflecting surface (IRS) in code division multiple access filter bank multicarrier offset quadrature amplitude modulation (CDMA-FBMC-OQAM) system, a promising technique for future-generation wireless communication. To neutralize the impact of channel phases, the IRS elements are in charge of intelligently adjusting the incident signal phases. By maximizing the signal-to-noise-ratio (SNR) of the received signal, the bit-error-rate (BER) performance is improved. By changing the number of IRS elements, taking into account various channel scenarios and modulation schemes, we compare the BER performance of the proposed system with that of the conventional Alamouti coded CDMA-FBMC-OQAM system in simulation results. The findings demonstrate that the IRS-assisted Alamouti coded CDMA-FBMC-OQAM transmission is a feasible choice for future-generation wireless communication systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In wireless environments, multi-carrier modulation (MCM) schemes provides resistance against fading. These schemes have been thoroughly researched for use in 4G/5G wireless communications because of their benefits. Wireless communication systems that use multiple carriers are the most prevalent in modern technology for high-speed transmissions of data. Many researchers are currently interested in implementing new protocols and physical layers for Filter Bank Multicarrier (FBMC) with Offset Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (OQAM). 5G transmission systems are likely to utilize the FBMC/OQAM scheme. The FBMC/OQAM system has many advantages over Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), but there are few disadvantages, one of which is its high PAPR. Because of the signal's overlapping nature in the FBMC system, conventional reduction techniques can't be applied to the subcarriers. High peak power also reduces the efficiency of FBMC/OQAM. It is essential to reduce as much as possible the peak power of a signal in communication systems. In this article, to minimize the peak-toaverage power ratio (PAPR), a Discrete Elephant Herding Optimization Algorithm (DEHOA) is used. Using the proposed method, we reduce the drawback of high PAPR with lower amalgamations of optimum phase factors for each overlapping information symbol. According to simulation results, the proposed method reduces PAPR, BER and improves spectral efficiency (SE) performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To effectively mitigate the effects of atmospheric turbulence in free space optical (FSO) communication, we propose a parallel carrier frequency offset estimation (FOE) scheme based on time-tagged QPSK partitioning (TTQP). This scheme can be applied to spatial diversity polarization multiplexing (PM) coherent FSO communication systems. Specifically, the TTQP scheme performs QPSK partitioning by time-tagging signal points, accurately recording the time intervals between signals, and significantly reducing implementation complexity through a modified Mth power algorithm. The simulation results for the PM 16-quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) validate the effectiveness of the proposed scheme. Compared to traditional QPSK partitioning algorithms, the TTQP algorithm achieves high accuracy, low complexity, and multi-format versatility in high-speed coherent FSO communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wide usage of Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) in visible light communication (VLC) systems aids in sharing immense multimedia files. But, an increase in the peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) becomes a setback for OFDM. This paper focuses on PAPR reduction and encrypted image transmission in OFDM-based VLC systems using masking approach. The proposed technique generates a mask with the random sequence from a Pi-based coupled chaotic map (PCCM). The ciphering of the transmitted image data involves twofold administration of the PCCM mask. First, the image data is confused using Arnold's Cat Map (ACM), and then the PCCM mask is applied. For the second time, the PCCM masks are applied on the equal-sized blocks of the subdivided image data at the Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) mapper stage, hence secures the transmission path. The proposed masking scheme frustrates statistical, brute-force and differential attacks and has a large key space of about 10 340 . The PCCM based masking scheme is able to reduce PAPR from 13.5 dB to 6 dB, with 56% reduction percentile when compared to the normal OFDM system, and the same is validated by Complementary cumulative distribution function (CCDF). The decryption quality of the PCCM mask based encryption approach is proven better with high correlation coefficient and output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) values. This scheme also maintains the condition of the image shared with a Bit error rate (BER) improvement of ∼ 1.2 to 1.5 dB compared to the normal OFDM system. This proposed technique is evaluated by simulation experiments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Internet of things (IoT) with continuous development allows multiple devices to be connected to each other through the external environment. With that, free space optical (FSO) transmission links provide high data transmission rates, so that enhanced quality of services, that is very suitable for deployment for fifth generation (5G) and IoT. FSO is known as license free, cost effective and line-of-sight green communication technology, which is employed in various circumstances, such as high data rate connections between buildings within campus or city. This study performs enhancement of FSO link for reconfigurable intelligent surfaces (RISs) aided over free space with gamma-gamma distribution channels. The paper analyzes the performance of FSO links affected by misalignment fading, RISs aided, and link distance with the subcarrier quadrature amplitude modulation scheme. Several numerical outcomes obtained for average electrical end-to-end signal-to-noise ratio, misalignment fading displacement standard deviation and link distance are shown to illustrate the average channel capacity of systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To address the high-cost issue of twin single sideband quadrature phase shift keying (Twin-SSB-QPSK) signals in optical transmission, a optical fiber communication system was proposed, in which a single photodetector (PD) was employed at the receiver to directly detect the Twin-SSB-QPSK signals. At the receiver end, optical bandpass filter (OBPF) was not required to separate the two optical single sideband signals of the Twin-SSB-QPSK signal. Instead, the heterodyne effect of direct detection was utilized, allowing a single PD to directly detect the coherent superposition of the twin two optical single sideband QPSK signals, resulting in a single 16-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (16QAM) signal. Simulations demonstrated that two 56 Gbit/s QPSK signals were combined into a single 112 Gbit/s 16QAM signal and then compared with the traditional single 16QAM signal transmission scheme. The simulation results indicate that the proposed scheme does not introduce additional power penalties while reducing the system device requirements and deployment costs.

The challenge of ensuring reliability for high‐efficiency technology, multiple‐input‐multiple‐output orthogonal‐frequency‐division‐multiplexing (MIMO‐OFDM), in wireless frequency‐selective fading environments persists. In this article, the concept of spreading a symbol's energy is proposed as a viable solution to enhance transmission reliability for MIMO‐OFDM systems. And an energy‐spreading‐transform (EST)‐based MIMO‐OFDM transceiver is developed. Following the Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) performed by the conventional MIMO‐OFDM transmitter, an orthogonal transformation called the EST is introduced. This transform spreads the energy of a symbol across the entire frequency domain and all time slots. The EST is coupled with the improved iterative detection algorithm named EST‐partial decision (PD)‐iterative‐interference‐cancellation (EST‐PD‐IIC) to maximize and leverage the potential diversity gain. Numerical simulation results demonstrate that the proposed scheme approaches the performance bound when signal‐to‐noise ratio (SNR) is about 21dB for 16‐ary quadrature amplitude modulation (16‐QAM). Complexity analysis illustrates that the computational complexity of the evolved EST‐PD‐IIC algorithm is lower than that of the famous vertically Bell laboratory layered space‐time detector (V‐BLAST) when the antenna array size is greater than 3×3$3\times 3$. In summary, the proposed scheme is practical for providing high‐quality communication in multi‐path fading environments and can even enable a reliable communication without channel encoding when Eb/N0 exceeds a threshold in 5G‐Advanced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a multi-level modulation scheme applied to achieve high data transmission rates. In the 16-QAM scheme, high Peak-to-Average Ratio (PAPR) is an issue as wireless communication devices are required to be small with high power efficiency. To resolve this issue, hexagonal constellation symbol mapping has been proposed to reduce the PAPR. In a real environment, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) systems are sensitive to signal distortions such as multipath channel and frequency offsets. When the pilot signals are used to compensate the signal distortion, the combination of pilot signals and mapping need to be considered. The paper investigates the PAPR of the hexagonal constellations and examines the relationship between the PAPR and the interval of pilot signal in OFDM system. Bit Error Rate (BER) performance are evaluated with computer simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In general, a 5G new radio network is defined by three primary utilization situations, namely upgraded versatile broadband, ultra-reliable, and low latency interchanges of information, as well as huge machine-type correspondences. These utilizations require improved throughput, inertness, dependability contrasted, and a 4G framework. As a coding plan for information, 5G Turbo codes attain high throughput, a variable code rate, and length, and crossover programmed rehash with good error-detecting capability. The execution boundaries of 5G advancements are normal and are tens and thousands of times better compared with 4G. In this paper, the evaluations of puncturing and non-puncturing for turbo code depending on the minimization of penetrating of efficient pieces are discussed. It also provides penetrating of equality pieces considering additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) Channel with 16 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) to attain high spectral efficiency. In addition to this, the super encoder encodes the separated progression with a code speed of 1/3. The code block association progressively connects the yields from the super encoder. The sign mapper employed in this paper adjusts the progression using a 16-QAM balance. Also, the mapper takes effective pieces, one uniformity bit from the upper encoder, and the deinterleaved equity bit from the base encoder. The Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) mapper parts into more modest equivalent channels, named subcarriers and the information is sent on these equivalent channels at a reduced rate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Voice services have progressed significantly since the launch of mobile phones and have evolved from analog technology to digital ones. Since the launch of 5G, voice over 5G (Vo5G) will slowly take over legacy mobile technologies to provide better voice services. Nevertheless, interruptions and noise will continue to affect speech communication over wireless networks, ensuing in a reduced Quality of Service (QoS). Three enhanced transmission schemes for Vo5G are proposed. The first proposal benefits from the difference in weight of the bits of internet Low Bitrate Code (iLBC) coded packets to offer them diverse degrees of protection i.e. Unequal Error Protection (UEP). UEP enhances the reception quality by allowing the more significant bits to be decoded with greater reliability during 5G transmission. The second and third schemes substitute the usual Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) constellation with a Statistical QAM (SQAM) one. The second scheme arranges the significant bits on the SQAM constellation and the remaining bits onto the conventional QAM arrangement. For the third scheme, all the bits are arranged on the SQAM constellation. Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN) were incorporated into the third scheme as the third scheme provided better gains over the first and second schemes. GAN was used to synthesize and enhance parts of the speech file that were lost during transmission over the 5G channel resulting in a gain in Segmented Signal to Noise Ratio (SSNR). The addition of GAN boosted the gain obtained by the third scheme by 1.45 dB with 16‐QAM at a code rate of 1/3. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To solve the significant performance degradation in the blind equalization for multi-level quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) signals, an improved multimodulus algorithm based on the real part (or the imaginary part) of the transmitted signals is developed in this paper. Theoretical analysis illustrates that the proposed algorithm can roughly half the computational complexity and fundamentally suppress the well-known steady-state maladjustment of classical constant modulus algorithm and multimodulus algorithm. Moreover, the large maladjustment in the iteration process can be completely removed, thus the proposed algorithm can work well in impulsive noise environment. Finally, simulation results show the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm under both Gaussian and impulsive noise environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventional wireless communication schemes indiscriminately transmit information into the whole space and pose inherent security risks. Recently, directional information modulation (DIM) has attracted enormous attention as a promising technology. DIM generates correct constellation symbols in the desired directions and distorts them in undesired directions, thus ensuring the security of the transmitted information. Although several DIM schemes have been reported, they suffer from defects of bulkiness, energy consumption, high cost, and inability to support two-dimensional (2D) and high-order modulations. Here, we propose a DIM scheme based on a 2-bit programmable metasurface (PM) that overcomes these defects. A fast and efficient discrete optimization algorithm is developed to optimize the digital coding sequences, and the correct constellation symbols can be generated and transmitted in multi-directional beams. As a proof-of-concept, three sets of constellation diagrams (8 phase shift keying (PSK), 16 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), and 64QAM) are realized in the multi-channel modes. This work provides an important route of employing DIM for ensuring physical-layer security and serves as a stepping stone toward endogenous secure communications. The authors showcase a directional information modulation scheme based on a programmable metasurface, which opens a new route to ensure physical-layer security and serves as a stepping stone toward endogenous secure communications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Massive MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) systems impose significant processing burdens along with strict latency requirements. The combination of large-scale antenna arrays and wide bandwidth requirements for next-generation wireless systems creates an exponential increase in frontend to backend data. Balancing the processing latency and reliability is critical for baseband processing tasks such as QAM detection. While linear detection algorithms have low computational complexity, their use in Massive MIMO scenario has heavy degradation in error performance. Nonlinear detection methods such as Maximum Likelihood and Sphere Decoding have good error performance, but they suffer from high, variable, and uncontrollable computational complexity. For such cases, the K-best QAM detection algorithm can provide required control over the system performance while maintaining near-ML error performance. In this paper, hard-output, as well as soft-output K-best QAM detection, is implemented in a CPU by utilizing the multiple cores combined with vector processing. Similarly, hard-output detection in a GPU is implemented by leveraging the SIMD (Single Instruction, Multiple Data) architecture and Warp-based execution model. The processing time per bit and the energy consumption per bit are compared for CPU and GPU implementations for QAM constellation density and MIMO array size. The GPU implementation shows up to 5× processing latency per bit improvement and up to 120× energy consumption per bit improvement over the CPU implementation for typical QAM constellations such as 4, 16, and 64 QAM. GPU implementation also shows up to 125× improvement over CPU implementation in energy consumption per bit for larger MIMO configurations such as 24 × 24 and 32 × 32. Finally, the soft-output detector is combined with a LDPC (Low-Density Parity Check) decoder to obtain the FER (Frame Error Rate) performance for CPU implementation. The FER is then combined with frame processing latency to form a Goodput metric to demonstrate the latency and reliability tradeoff. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the analysis of the quantum detection of coherent states used in photonic communications systems that employ the dimensions of both a) the complex amplitude in the quadrature-amplitude modulation (QAM) of order M (M-ary QAM) format, and b) the state of polarization of the quantum state. At the transmitter, a constellation of quantum composite coherent states is prepared producing a four-dimensional (4D) M-ary QAM modulation on the photonic carrier, either in alternated or in dual polarizations; the receiver implements a quantum detection strategy on the composite states constellation, to determine as precisely as possible which quantum state was sent. We employ the square root method (SRM) for the detection of the received 4D quantum coherent states constellation both: (a) in alternate polarizations, and (b) in dual polarizations, for the assessment of the photonic communications system performance in mutual information and in error probability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two-wave with diffuse power (TWDP) is one of the most promising distributions for describing multipath fading in the emerging millimeter-wave (mmWave) band. However, traditional error performance analysis in these channels is mostly based on the approximate expressions, accurate only for specific combinations of TWDP parameters that describe particular channel conditions. Considering the aforementioned, this paper begins with an extensive literature overview of the existing average bit/symbol error probability (ABEP/ASEP) expressions in TWDP channels, revealing the absence of the exact expressions that could be used to accurately evaluate error performance in all channel conditions, for most modulation and diversity techniques. Next, the exact ASEP expressions are derived for M-ary rectangular quadrature amplitude modulation with coherent detection and for M-ary differential phase shift keying modulation. These expressions are then used to derive corresponding computationally simple closed-form asymptotic ASEPs, which accurately evaluate error performance for signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) greater than 30 dB. All the results are verified through Monte-Carlo simulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We propose a novel reception scheme for twin single-sideband (twin-SSB) signals using just a single photodetector (PD), significantly reducing the system complexity and cost. To detect a twin-SSB with power-unbalanced quadrature-phase shift keying (QPSK) sidebands upon detection via a single PD at the receiver side, two QPSKs carried in two sidebands are coherently superposed and detected in a 16-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (16-QAM) format. This technique notably diminishes the linearity and effective number of bits required for the transmitter components in high-speed optical transmission systems. Moreover, a hierarchical blind-phase search (HBPS) algorithm is proposed to compensate for the imperfect phase rotation of QPSK signals during transmission. To demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method, we successfully conducted simulations of 112 Gb/s 16-QAM signal transmission over a 10 km standard single-mode fiber (SSMF), achieving bit error ratios (BERs) of 7.84 × 10 − 4 , well below the 7% hard-decision forward error correction (HD-FEC) threshold of 3.8 × 10 − 3 . In addition, the synthetic transmission scheme proposed in this paper is compared with the traditional 16-QAM signal transmission scheme, and the results show that the proposed scheme does not introduce a performance cost with the same received optical power (ROP) and transmission distance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a subset-optimized eight-dimensional trellis-coded quadrature amplitude modulation (SO-8DTCM-16QAM) format for higher-order constellations in high-speed optical communications is proposed. This scheme increases the number of subsets of base 2D constellation divisions. On this basis, it is further optimized by using 2D subsets for Cartesian product combinations to obtain 4D subsets and eliminate the combinations with small Euclidean distances. Finally, the 4D subsets are utilized to construct interrelated 8D subsets for trellis coding modulation and signal transmission. The proposed scheme can effectively reduce the decoding complexity and outperforms the conventional scheme at a high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Simulation verification of the proposed scheme is carried out, and the results show that the SO-8DTCM-16QAM achieves signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) gains of 1.60 dB, 1.56 dB, 1.51 dB, and 1.33 dB, respectively, compared with the conventional 8D-16QAM signals when BTB and 5/20/30 km optical signal transmission are performed. The SO-8DTCM-16QAM also achieves an SNR gain of 1.86 dB, 1.75 dB, and 1.22 dB at a net transmission rate of 14/21/28 GBaud. In addition, the SO-8DTCM-16/32/64QAM achieves an SNR gain of 1.27 dB, 0.80 dB, and 1.24 dB, respectively, when compared with the unoptimized 8DTCM-16/32/64QAM. Meanwhile, the proposed eight-subset SO-8DTCM-QAM scheme reduces the complexity of the decoding computation in the subset selection part and the constellation point selection part by 93.75% and 50%, respectively, compared with the unoptimized eight-subset and four-subset 8DTCM-QAM schemes. It can be seen that the proposed scheme simultaneously optimizes the transmission performance and complexity of high-speed optical communication systems and has practical application value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper investigates dual-hop Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface (RIS) wireless communication systems with malicious jamming, where the destination node faces jamming from a malicious jammer with a RIS-Equipped Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) relay. We model the channel gains for Tx-RIS and Jammer-RIS links with a Rician distribution, while the RIS-Rx link follows a Nakagami-m distribution, and the jamming status is modeled as a Bernoulli-distributed random variable. We derived and provided closed-form expressions for the probability density functions (PDFs) of the legitimate channel and jamming channel in RIS-Equipped UAV wireless communication systems. Additionally, a new closed-form expression for the PDF of the received signal-to-jamming ratio (SJR) is derived. Using the Gauss–Laguerre Approximation method, we calculate the Average Bit Error Rate (ABER) under Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) and Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) schemes. We analyze the effects of jamming probability, the location of the legitimate RIS, and different channel conditions on ABER performance through theoretical analyses and simulation results. Our theoretical analyses and simulation results indicate that an increase in the probability of malicious jamming significantly raises the ABER. For example, under favorable channel conditions, the ABER for BPSK modulation was observed to be as low as 10 − 5 , whereas under poor channel conditions, the ABER increased to 10 − 2 . Additionally, by reducing the distance between the transmitter and the RIS, the ABER can be improved. The legitimate RIS performs better when closer to the transmitter. These findings highlight the critical impact of channel conditions and the deployment of the RIS on the overall system's performance. Our results offer valuable insights into designing and evaluating the performance of RIS-Equipped UAV wireless communication systems in the presence of malicious jamming, aiding in the development of countermeasures to enhance system resilience and security. The derived expressions are validated through Monte Carlo simulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless body area networks (WBANs), featuring wearable and implantable devices for collecting physiological data are increasingly critical in healthcare for enabling continuous remote monitoring, diagnostic improvements, and treatment optimization. Secure communication within WBANs is essential to protect sensitive health data from unauthorized access and manipulation. This paper introduces a novel secure digital (SD)- human body communication (HBC) transceiver (TR) system, tailored for WBAN applications, that prioritizes security and offers significant enhancements in size, power efficiency, speed, and data transmission efficiency over current solutions. Leveraging a combination of frequencyselective (FS) digital transmission with walsh codes (WCs) or quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), and incorporating one-round encryption and decryption modules, the system complies with the IEEE 802.15.6 standard, ensuring broad compatibility. Specifically, the QAM-based SD-HBC TR system exhibits a 4% reduction in chip area, a 7.6% increase in operating frequency, a 3.4% decrease in power consumption, a 27.5% reduction in latency, and improvements of 33% in throughput and 35.5% in efficiency. Importantly, it achieves a bit error rate (BER) of up to 10-8, demonstrating high reliability across communication methods. This research significantly advances secure communication in WBANs, offering a promising approach for enhancing the reliability, efficiency, and security of healthcare monitoring technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we propose a low-complexity fiber nonlinearity impairments compensation scheme based on nonlinear step size and modified adaptive digital back propagation. To verify the feasibility of the proposed algorithm, we construct a simulation system of single channel 12.5 GBaud polarization division multiplexing 16-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (PDM-16QAM) optical transmission system. Comprehensive numerical simulation results demonstrate that the proposed scheme can not only search for the fiber nonlinear coefficient adaptively, but also has the characteristics of high performance and low complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The evolution of wireless communication in the presence of multipath fading and shadowing is generally strained by the worsening of propagation conditions. Thus, in order to estimate the achievable improvements of the link quality (due to channel enhancement), such a parameter as diversity gain is usually used. The diversity gain is classically defined as a limit for infinitely increasing signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the receiver input, theoretically attained only in asymptotics, and in practice attained at very high SNR values (e.g., 50–70 dB), which are unrealistic from the practical perspectives for wireless fading channels. In this case, a modified version of the same metric (i.e., the finite-SNR diversity gain; FSDG) was proposed. The presented research performs a comparative analysis of the FSDG for the case of a multipath channel with fading induced by second order scattering and fluctuating line-of-sight (LoS) component (i.e., fluctuating double-Rayleigh with Line-of-Sight; fdRLoS). The signal model included the hexagonal quadrature amplitude modulations (QAM) with regular and irregular constellations. For the considered problem, an exact expression for the FSDG was derived and analyzed as a function of channel parameters (responsible for fading severity and shadowing intensity) and modulation formats. It has been found that the FSDG can exceed the classical (asymptotic) diversity gain by the order of magnitude, and scenarios have been identified where this can occur (for example, the maximum is achieved under conditions of light shadowing and strong line-of-sight component). A nonmonotonic dependence of FSDG on the QAM constellation size (for any type of constellation) was found out: for low-to-moderate average SNR, for extremely weak and extremely strong LoS, the highest FSDG is achieved with smaller constellations, whereas for moderate LoS components, with larger constellations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The non‐orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) is highly capable of serving multiple users at similar times and frequencies. The power allocation (PA) is widely considered as a main factor in NOMA for efficient communication. Here, the application of multiple‐input multiple‐output (MIMO) is added to NOMA to fulfill demands of enriched spectral efficiencies and extra user data. In this research, the Ladybug Beetle Honey Badger Optimization (LBHBO) is proposed for efficient PA in MIMO‐NOMA. Initially, the received signals from the user are modulated for amplitude and frequency. Then, user grouping is conducted by fuzzy local information c‐means (FLICM) clustering followed by using PA done by proposed LBHBO. This power is then moved to the transmitter and then to the channel estimation process. Moreover, cyclic prefix (CP) removal is carried out that tends to discrete Fourier transform (DFT). Finally, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) demodulation is performed for reallocated output. Furthermore, LBHBO is formed by combining Ladybug Beetle Optimization (LBO) and Honey Badger Algorithm (HBA). The performance offered by the LBHBO‐PA with maximal values with energy efficiency (EE) of 25.38 Mbits/s, sum rate of 1.29 Mbits/s, and achievable rate of 100.47 Mbits/s. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This Letter proposes a low-complexity joint equalization and decoding reception scheme based on super-trellis per-survivor processing, making it possible to apply maximum likelihood sequence estimation in high-order underwater acoustic communications under fast time-varying channels. The technique combines trellis-coded modulation states and intersymbol interference states and uses per-survivor processing to track channel parameters. Furthermore, a general trellis configuration for arbitrary order quadrature amplitude modulation signal is provided when truncate the channel is used to describe the intersymbol interference state to 1. Sea trials results show that the performance of proposed method can be more than 1.4 dB superiority than conventional schemes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The combination of high-order modulation formats and linewidth-tolerant carrier phase estimation (CPE) can effectively improve spectrum efficiency and relax the limitation of laser linewidth. This paper presents a simple two-stage CPE algorithm for polarization-multiplexed (PM) 32-quadrature amplitude modulation (32-QAM) coherent optical communication systems. The algorithm uses an enhanced QPSK partitioning algorithm combined with a simplified 4th power CPE method for coarse estimation in the initial stage and maximum likelihood (ML) detection in the subsequent fine stage. The CPE algorithm significantly increases the number of symbols used in the first stage of coarse estimation. This results in a significant increase in the stability and reliability of the phase estimation, and the CPE algorithm significantly reduces the computational complexity. The optimal parameters, phase estimation performance, and system performance of the algorithm were investigated by building a 22 Gbaud PM 32-QAM coherent system simulation platform and a 5 Gbaud PM 32-QAM coherent system experimental platform. The results show that the proposed two-stage CPE algorithm has a stronger linewidth tolerance difference than the conventional QPSK, and the two-stage CPE algorithm with an optimal block length of 105 performs comparable to blind phase search (BPS). The optical signal noise Ratio (OSNR) value is 21.2 dB and the bit error rate (BER) is 1.8 × 10−3 for the optimal block length of 105. The receiving-end DSP unit with a flexible scheme and good communication performance will have potential applications in adaptive elastic optical networks.

With the advent of 5G communications, the demand for high data rates and improved spectral efficiency has necessitated the exploration of advanced modulation techniques. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and Universal Filtered Multi-Carrier (UFMC) are two prominent modulation schemes for 5G systems. However, both OFDM and UFMC suffer from a high Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR), leading to signal distortion and inefficient power amplification. The Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS) approach is a promising strategy to minimize PAPR in OFDM and is applied to UFMC to minimize PAPR in UFMC and is known as scrambled UFMC (S-UFMC). PTS, however, involves an extensive search to identify the best phase factors that increase computational complexity. The artificial bee colony algorithm is proposed to reduce the computational complexity S-UFMC and OFDM. A novel modulation scheme, amplitude phase shift keying (APSK), is used instead of quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) in S-UFMC and OFDM, which has better performance than conventional modulation schemes. In this research, OFDM, PTS OFDM, UFMC and S-UFMC are compared and it is found that the proposed scrambled UFMC with APSK modulation using ABC algorithm performs better than OFDM and UFMC in terms of PAPR, spectral efficiency and computational complexity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel visible-light communication (VLC) system with 4 × 1 multi-input–single-output (MISO) channels is designed. In the system, the filter bank multicarrier (FBMC) and offset quadrature amplitude modulation (OQAM) techniques are used to generate downlink signals. The principles and implementation methods are proposed and analyzed, and the light intensity and received light power distribution of four LED emitters are discussed. The results demonstrate that it not only satisfies the requirements of indoor information access but also provides daily lighting. The used FBMC-OQAM signals exhibit better reception performance than orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) signals. The system used has a lower bit error rate (BER) and larger access bandwidth compared to a 1 × 1 single-input–single-output (SISO) system. It has the potential for application advantages in future indoor VLC system applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communication systems have recently focused on sending information efficiently and effectively from one sending point to another across a communication channel in the shortest amount of time. The main objective of this work is to compare the high-range coding scheme types, such as low density parity check (LDPC), turbo, and convolution, to see which works better and is more efficient. to establish a coding system with quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) modulation and an additive white gaussian noise (AWGN) noisy channel to find which is more reliable and resilient for encoding and decoding. Because of this, digital media has to be sent over wireless channels and through satellites, requiring a connected network all the time, which has become a major concern over time. Furthermore, the high amount of data and efficiency are the focus points. After running the simulation, it was found that 64 QAM with a rate of 0.455 and an efficiency of 2.731 has a bit error rate (BER) of 0.001 and a 7.08 dB energy per bit Eb/No, and the 256 QAM simulation revealed that it has a BER of 0.001 and 11.88 dB Eb/No with a rate of 0.736 and an efficiency of 5.891. Over the AWGN channel noise, the simulation built a standard orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) system, which used MATLAB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Data traffic is rapidly growing due to e-commerce, digital communication, and the digital world. Optical networks must provide a better solution to enhance transmission and improve service with cost efficiency. Considerable investigations of the 64QAM (Quadrature Amplitude Modulation) model have been conducted on wireless and optical communication to improve transmission efficiency. The next generation 400Gb/s systems are now widely recognized to be commercially accessible. At the same time, optical communication networks need a superior method to provide the best Quality of Transmission with improved data transmission efficiency. This paper aims to improve the Quality of Transmission in Optical Communication Networks (OCN). Therefore, a simple and fast reconfigurable network model is essentially required. However, there is a problem primarily related to configuring the network parameters to improve the Quality of Transmission (QoT). Research has shown that deep learning algorithms can improve QoT. Recurrent Neural Networks and Long-Short-Term-Memory (RNN-LSTM) algorithms are employed to leverage the factors of QoT in OCN. The RNN model analyzes the physical network parameters, and LSTM analyzes the dynamic data parameters and data from OCN. The Gaussian processes and path computation elements are utilized to obtain a mean absolute Signal Noise Ratio error of merely 0.1dB as a better result by the Gaussian process. The proposed model can provide high flexibility in changing the network topologies, planning, and period with less complexity by including a dataset evolution, adjusting the parameters, and examining output. A real-time dataset is analyzed using RNN-LSTM, implemented in Python, and experimented with. The throughput, bandwidth, and modulation path following light paths are calculated in the experiment to estimate the QoT. The experimental results showed that the proposed RNN-LSTM model provides better QoT. From the comparison, the proposed model provides a better throughput of 1 to 2 Gbps and Under Provisioning Ratio of 0.5 Hz over the existing models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Light emitting diode (LED) non-linearities bounds the output performance of visible light communication (VLC) system. LED's front-end components and high peak to average power ratio (PAPR) of the transmitted signal are the main contributors of distortion in transmitted signal. In this work, both pre-distortion and post-distortion techniques are analyzed for the reduction of non-linear distortion of intensity modulation/direct detection (IM/DD) based channel. The modulation technique used is (OQAM-O-FBMC) offset quadrature amplitude modulation optical filter bank multi-carrier. A hybrid PAPR reduction and non-linear distortion mitigation technique for VLC is proposed. The proposed technique consists of hybrid processing algorithm partial transmit sequence (H-PTS) method for PAPR reduction and kernel minimum symbol error rate (KMSER) based post-distortion method for reduction of non-linear distortion. MATLAB based simulations have been provided for the analysis of proposed hybrid method. The results have shown that proposed hybrid technique shows 2 dB improvement in PAPR and 4 dB improvement in non-linear distortion of VLC system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optical communication has emerged as the best solution to high-speed transmission systems due to its higher bandwidth and higher data rates. The higher data rates with simple transmitter and receiver modeling are one of the best solutions to design the spectrally efficient high-speed optical transmission system using different modulation techniques. In the recent past, optical communication networks have been specifically designed and optimized to support different communication standards increasing the capabilities of optic fiber, integrated waveguides, and related optical fiber hardware, and signal conditioning circuits. So, this research paper presents a study, modeling, simulation, and analysis of optical performance under different transmission systems which are considered in a practical high-speed design using orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). This can be done by using both coherent detection OFDM and direct detection OFDM to minimize dispersion effects in optical communication because OFDM is basic for modern technology to increase the data rate and increase the requirement of bandwidth in broadband services. Many optical fiber problems, such as chromatic dispersion (CD) and polarization mode dispersion (PMD) are solved using OFDM. The performance analyses made in this work by using different parameters such as bit error rate (BER), optical signal-to-noise ratio (OSNR), quality (Q) factor at different distance transmission by using different quadrature modulation such as 4-QAM, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, and 64-QAM to maintain the OSNR value, spectral efficiency, and the required data rates. The simulated results have shown that the coherent detection OFDM and direct detection OFDM with considered QAM provides the best value of BER and quality of the signal at a specific distance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article has indicated optical coherent differential polarization (DP) 16 quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) transceiver systems with free-space optical (FSO) channel in the presence of differential coding scheme. The optical coherent DP 16-QAM receiver executes the reverse process conversion of the optical signal into an electrical one that is detected to the users. The proposed optical coherent DP-16 QAM transceiver systems based FSO channel model with differential coding has been presented and compared with the previous model. However, the simulation results have confidence realization about the superiority of the proposed simulation model. Hence the proposed optical coherent DP-16 QAM transceiver systems simulation model with differential coding is verified and validated the enhancement performance based on simulation performance parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As single-mode-fiber transmission systems are reaching their capacity limits, spatial-division multiplexing (SDM) techniques have been investigated to increase the per-fiber capacity. However, the compatibility with current single-mode transponders severely hinders the near-term deployment of SDM systems. In this paper, we experimentally propose two real-time SDM transmission schemes using commercial single-mode 400 G dual-polarized 16 quadrature amplitude modulation equipment. In the first experiment, 60 km weakly coupled single-mode 7-core fiber with a pair of fan-in and fan-out devices are adopted. In the second experiment, the fiber link consists of 60 km/150 km weakly coupled few-mode fiber (FMF) and low-modal-crosstalk mode multiplexers, in which only non-degenerate LP01 and LP02 modes are utilized. In order to investigate the effect of splice on SDM fiber links, 20-roll, 3 km multicore fibers (MCFs) and FMFs are spliced and tested in the experiments. The bit error rates of all SDM experiments are all below 4.75 × 10−2 forward-error-correction threshold of the 400 G transponders. The experimental results prove that the near-term deployment of SDM systems could be accelerated by utilizing weakly coupled MCFs or non-degenerate modes of weakly coupled FMFs which are compatible with commercial single-mode transponders without any software or hardware modifications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

State-of-the-art distributed system development with low power specifications is especially required for different applications. Ultra-wideband radar (UWB), Multi Input Multi Output radar (MIMO), and cognitive-based radar technology are the current trends in modern radar systems. Current EW systems are developed with digital receiver technology using Nyquist Sampling. Radar modulation recognition and correct radar identification are essential requirements for EW receiver systems. The radar signal acquisition through compressed sensing and reducing the number of samples using sub-Nyquist sampling play a vital role in EW systems. Random Modulator preintegrator (RMPI) is a current concept for extracting waveforms with dominant base vectors. RMPI explores the structural and geometrical properties of the signal apart from traditional time and frequency domain analysis for improved identification. The Curvelet transform-based RMPI methodology is an inverse problem with exceptionally fewer measurements. In this paper, Curveletbased modulation estimation, identification of radars, and Curvelet-simulated results of different radar waveforms with noise are depicted. The discrete Curvelet transform algorithm (USFFT) is simulated with an input signal of Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) pulse, pulse spikes, Linear Frequency Modulated (LFM), and Barker-coded pulse waveforms. The FFT output is also measured with Nyquist samples for comparison. This paper has contributed the simulation of Electronic Warfare techniques with Modulation Estimations as part of ESM (Electronic Support Measure), the Compressed sensing and Curvelet-based modulation estimation, identification of radars simulated with different radar waveforms with/without noise, and the discrete Curvelet transform algorithm is simulated with input signal of UWB pulse, pulse spikes, LFM, and Barker coded. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This manuscript proposes the quasi-cyclic low-density parity-check (QC-LDPC) coded-cooperative scheme based on the split labeling diversity (QC-LDPCC-SLD) with a single antenna over the Rayleigh frequency-flat fast fading channel. The two grith-4 cycle-free QC-LDPC codes are employed in the source and relay, respectively. To cancel the cycles of length-4 in the cross-layer of the joint QC-LDPC codes obtained at the destination, a simple optimized approach is developed based on the bi-layer joint Tanner graph. In addition, 16-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (16-QAM) and 16-ary phase shift keying (16-PSK) are utilized in the proposed QC-LDPCC-SLD scheme, where the two distinct optimized labeling mappers of labeling diversity (LD) are split appropriately and equipped in the relay and source, respectively, therefore lowering the error-floor (EF) region. Moreover, the novel joint Turbo-Decoding Message-Passing iterative decoding algorithm is developed to further enhance the overall BER performance and reduce the decoding complexity. Theoretical analysis and numerical results demonstrate that the proposed QC-LDPCC-SLD scheme significantly outperforms the corresponding non-cooperative schemes by more than 3.4 dB and is closer to the EF bound at the high signal-to-noise rate. Moreover, the performance of the proposed QC-LDPCC-SLD scheme is improved by at least 16 % at a BER of the order of 10 - 5 compared to the existing QC-LDPC counterpart systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An all-optical format conversion (AOFC) scheme for the input 30 Gbit/s rectangular 8-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (8QAM) signal is proposed and numerically investigated based on phase-sensitive amplification (PSA) and nonlinear Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI). Firstly, the input rectangular 8QAM signal is orthogonal decomposed into the in-phase and quadrature components based on PSA, respectively. The in-phase component is the 4-ary amplitude and phase shift keying (4APSK) signal and the quadrature component is the binary phase shift keying (BPSK) signal. Secondly, the converted 4APSK signal is transmitted into one piece of highly nonlinear fiber (HNLF) to obtain the phase-distorted two-amplitude and two-phase (2A-2P) signal based on the self-phase modulation (SPM) effect. After adjusting the power of the 2A-2P signal, it is injected into one nonlinear MZI to eliminate the amplitude difference of the inner and the outer rings of the 2A-2P signal. The 2A-2P signal can be converted into the regular quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) signal by the nonlinear MZI with phase preservation. Thirdly, the converted BPSK and QPSK signals are coherently superposed in one 3-dB optical coupler (OC) to get the aggregated rectangular 8QAM signal and other types of 8QAM signals. The proposed scheme can also be extended to realize the AOFC from the 16-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (16QAM) signal to two QPSK signals. The constellation diagrams, amplitude and phase histograms, error vector magnitude (EVM) and bit error rate (BER) of the relevant optical signals are measured to evaluate the system performance. The proposed scheme can be equipped with the optical gateway to enable all-optical interconnection of optical networks with different modulation formats.

A new optoelectronic oscillator (OEO) is implemented for a novel self-sustained flat-topped self-oscillating optical frequency comb generator (SO-OFCG), which can be deployed in terahertz optical transmission. The OFCG is designed from a cascaded configuration of an electro-absorption modulator and a polarization controller. In this work, the radio frequency source of a traditional-OFC scheme is replaced by the OEO. The frequency spacing of the generated spectrum is defined by the OEO∼20 GHz that contains 15-healthy frequency tones. The carriers are modulated using the 16-quadrature amplitude modulation technique and transmitted across an SSMF implemented in a loop to complete a fiber span of 80 km-240 km. Overall, 1.12Tbps transmission can be achieved with the help of the given setup. At the receiver side, a homodyne coherent receiver is designed using the proposed OFCG to receive the signal. The conventional local oscillator lasers are replaced by the SO-OFCG generated from the received central optical carrier. Through offline DSP, the received optical signals are remunerated from various signal distortions and nonlinear impairments by utilizing digital backpropagation, constant modulus algorithm, and blind phase search algorithm at the receiving end. The system is analyzed regarding the bit error rate, symbol error rate, Q-factor, and error vector magnitude.

The success rate of a neural network (NN) classifier (rectified linear unit, 10 layers, softmax output layer activation)-based demodulator was proposed and evaluated for phase-shift keying (PSK) and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) modulated signals corrupted by additive white Gaussian, chisquared, uniform, and Rayleigh noise channels with signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) ranging from −20 dB to +20 dB. Low SNR are common in spectrum sensing, cognitive radio networks, underwater acoustics, target detection, remote sensing, seismic monitoring, and helicopter blade detection. This classifier-demodulator performance was compared with that of the matched filter detector (MFD) for varying channel noise, constellation type (PSK or QAM), constellation size (M=2, 4, 8, 16), sample size (N), and training to test the data ratio. The classifier demodulator had a performance equal to or better than MFD in 98% of the scenarios. A training-to-test ratio of 70:30 or 80:20 is appropriate. The classifier performances of M-PSK and M-QAM are comparable. The superior performance of the NN classifier is more pronounced for M values greater than 2. N=5000 or higher is sufficient for most scenarios, and N=20000 is necessary for M=16. A higher success rate was obtained for additive chisquare and Rayleigh noise channels. The proposed demodulator performed significantly better than the matched filter for SNR values $\le0$ dB. 16-QAM over an additive uniform noise channel has a better success rate for an SNR of 0 dB or less, whereas 16-QAM over an additive Rayleigh noise channel has a better success rate for an SNR of 5 dB or higher.

Semantic information representation in image-based communication often employs feature vectors, lacking interpretability and posing challenges for human comprehension. This paper addresses this challenge by exploring the reconstruction of original images in the context of American sign language (ASL) transmission. The conventional method involves decoding feature vectors through neural networks, introducing inefficiencies and complexities. To overcome these challenges, a novel system model for image-based semantic communications is presented, which utilizes a variant of the quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) scheme, named 24-QAM. This modulation scheme is derived from the original 32-QAM constellation by removing 8 peripheral symbols and is proven capable of attaining superior error performance in ASL applications. Additionally, a semantic encoder based on a convolutional neural network (CNN) which effectively utilizes the ASL alphabet is presented. An original dataset is created by superimposing red-green-blue landmarks and key-points on top of the captured images; hence, enhancing the representation of hand posture. Finally, the training, testing, and communication performance of the proposed system is quantified through numerical results that highlight the achievable gains and trigger insightful discussions.