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Concentrations of antioxidants in breast milk probably define the degree of protection it can offer against peroxidation. The aim of the present investigation was to determine the differences in vitamin E status of Spanish women smokers and nonsmokers in their third trimester of pregnancy and the concentrations of tocopherol in their milk. Vitamin E intake was determined during the third trimester of pregnancy by using a 5-d dietary record (including a Sunday) and by recording the quantities provided by supplements. HPLC was used to determine vitamin E concentrations in subjects' serum during the third trimester, in transitional breast milk on days 13-14 of lactation, and in mature breast milk on day 40 of lactation. Subjects also answered a questionnaire about their smoking habits during pregnancy. Subjects were grouped as nonsmokers (71.9%; n = 41) or smokers (28.1%; n = 16). Although vitamin E intake was somewhat greater in nonsmokers, the difference was not significant. Ratios of vitamin E to polyunsaturated fatty acids were practically the same in both groups. The use of vitamin E supplements was limited and did not modify the results of the study. No significant differences in these serum indexes were found between smokers and nonsmokers, and no subject had deficient serum vitamin E concentrations. However, vitamin E concentrations in mature milk were significantly lower in smokers than in nonsmokers. Although it is already known that maternal smoking favors peroxidation events in newborns, if the concentration of antioxidants (vitamin E) in smokers' breast milk is also lower, it might aggravate the peroxidation problems of their newborns. Copyright (c) 1998 American Society for Clinical Nutrition [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To determine the relationships between habitual breakfast habits and performance in verbal aptitude, logical reasoning and mathematical tests in a group of well-nourished scholars from Madrid., Design: The study subjects were 180 children between 9 and 13 y of age. A dietetic study was undertaken using a 7-day food record. Scholastic aptitude was examined using the scholastic aptitude test (SAT-1) test., Results: Breakfast made up 19.1% of total daily intake. No differences were found between subjects in terms of personal data or total diet with respect to whether they habitually took adequate breakfasts (AB) (ie, more than 20% of daily energy being provided by this meal) or inadequate breakfasts (IB) (less than 20%). However, AB subjects achieved better reasoning scores in the SAT-1 test., Conclusions: The normal breakfast habits of schoolchildren should be taken into account when studying diet-mental function relationships, even when studying well-nourished populations.

Objective: The aim of this work was to analyse the influence of dietetic and anthropometric data, as well as the sport practised, on the bone density of different groups of sportswomen., Subjects and Methods: Dietetic, anthropometric and bone density data were collected from 74 women who practised different sports (15 skiers, 26 basketball players and 33 ballet dancers), and compared to those of 90 women who led sedentary lifestyles., Results: The sportswomen had higher bone mineral contents and bone densities than controls. However, the dancers showed similar spinal and hip values as those of controls, and lower forearm values. Low body weight and body mass index, and insufficient energy intake-characteristic of the dancers-were associated with poorer bone mineralisation status. Increased energy, protein, vitamin D, calcium, zinc and magnesium intakes were associated with greater bone density and mineral content at different sites., Conclusions: The worst bone density status was that of the dancers, who, as a group, displayed characteristics that have negative impacts in this respect (low energy intakes and low body weight). Dancers should therefore take steps to avoid suffering fractures and skeleto-muscular lesions which could negatively influence their health and physical performance. The greater consumption of milk products and calcium and better Ca/P ratio seen in the dancers could help this group to avoid bone deterioration.

Objective: To evaluate the influence of dietetic vitamin B2 on the activation coefficient of erythrocyte glutation reductase (alpha-EGR) of a group of elderly people., Design: The study subjects were 133, independently-living elderly people, between 65 and 90 years of age. A dietetic study was performed using a 7-day food record. Riboflavin status was measured by determining the alpha-EGR., Results: Some 23.9% of subjects had riboflavin intakes lower than those recommended. At the biochemical level, 9.8% of subjects (7.7% of men and of 10.6% women) showed alpha-EGR>1.2. Those subjects with riboflavin intakes below 90% of those recommended showed significantly higher alpha-EGR levels (1.15+/-0.16), an indication of a poorer riboflavin status at the biochemical level. Those with greater intakes showed lower alpha-EGR values (1.05+/-0.10). Furthermore, the mean consumption of dairy products (an important source of this vitamin) by subjects is insuficiente (341.1+/-159.8 g/day, 2.1+/-1 servings/day). The data show that those with riboflavin intakes below those recommended took 204.7+/-89.4 g/day of milk products (1.3+/-0.5 servings/day) compared to the 384+/-153.1 g/day (2.4+/-1 servings/day) (p<0.001) consumed by those with higher riboflavin intakes., Conclusion: Although the mean riboflavin intake is acceptable, there remain some insufficiencies that require attention. It would seem advisable to recommend the elderly increase their intake of milk products. This would be especially important for subjects who take less than two rations per day.

Objective: The aim of the present investigation was to study the relationship between riboflavin status during the third trimester of pregnancy and levels of this vitamin in transition milk (days 13 to 14 of lactation) and mature milk (day 40 of lactation)., Methods: The pregnancies and lactation periods of 57 healthy women between 18 and 35 years of age (27+/-3.7 years) were monitored, vitamin intake during the third trimester was determined by recording the consumption of foods over five days and by registering the quantities provided by dietary supplements. Riboflavin status during this stage of pregnancy was determined via the measurement of the activation of erythrocyte glutathione reductase (EGR) by flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD). Milk riboflavin levels were determined by fluorometry., Results: Those subjects with riboflavin intakes below recommended (1.6 mg/day) (Group L) showed lower consumption of milk products (305.2+/-88.5 g/day) than did those with greater intakes (Group H) (507.9+/-137.2 g/day). The consumption of riboflavin containing supplements was very low and was seen only in two H subjects. Transition and mature milk riboflavin levels were significantly higher in H subjects (948.1+/-700.1 nmol/L for transition milk and 993.8+/-436.6 nmol/L for mature milk) than L subjects (574.9+/-258.7 nmol/L for transition milk and 725.4+/-254.3 nmol/L for mature milk). Subjects with alpha-EGR coefficients over 1.2 in the third trimester showed significantly lower mature milk riboflavin levels (704.1+/-241.8 nmol/L) than did subjects with more satisfactory alpha-EGR coefficients (996.4+/-302.9 nmol/L)., Conclusion: The influence of maternal vitamin B2 status during pregnancy on breast milk riboflavin levels was confirmed.

Calcium intake during the third trimester of pregnancy was determined in 82 pregnant women by recording the consumption of foods over a 5-day period and by calculation of the quantity of this element provided by dietary supplements. For each subject, blood pressures were measured once per week using an aneroid sphygmomanometer, to detect and analyze differences in calcium intake between those with normal blood pressure and those suffering from gestational hypertension (7.3%). Calcium intake was significantly lower amongst subjects with high blood pressure (757.7 +/- 154.5 compared to 986.4 +/- 502.3 mg/day in normotensive subjects). The relationship between calcium intake and blood pressure was independent of other variables such as body mass index, number of previous pregnancies, weight gain, subject age or hematocrit levels. Though further investigation is needed, the results obtained seem to support the idea that pregnant women should try to maintain an optimal calcium intake.

Background: The aim of the present study was to investigate whether such supplementation impairs the zinc status of pregnant women or the zinc content of maternal milk., Material and Methods: Fifty seven women were studied during pregnancy and lactation. Zinc, iron and folate intakes were monitored during the third trimester of pregnancy using a five day food record and by registering intake of the same in the form of dietary supplements. Zinc levels were determined, using flame-atomic-absorption spectrophotometry, in serum during the third trimester of pregnancy, in transition milk (day 13-14 of lactation), and in mature milk (day 40 of lactation)., Results: 1.8% of pregnant women took zinc supplements whilst 7% took folate supplements. However, 100% of subjects showed zinc intakes (the sum of dietary and supplementary intakes) lower than those recommended. 87.7% showed the same for folate intake, 29.8% of pregnant women took iron supplements. When dietary and supplementary intakes were added, 26.3% of subjects showed iron intakes of over 200% of those recommended. Pregnant women with iron intakes in the third trimester of pregnancy of over 200% those recommended, showed lower serum zinc levels during the third trimester and, at a later date, lower mature milk zinc levels than did subjects with lower iron intakes., Conclusions: The combined dietary and supplementary intake of iron in some subjects provided total intakes of over 200% those recommended. Though this might be associated with an improvement in iron status it may impair those of zinc. Subjects with an intake of iron of over 200% of that recommended showed significantly lower serum and mature milk zinc levels than did those with lower iron intakes. It is suggested that the nutritional status of pregnant women should be carefully monitored and supplementation tailored to the needs of each individual.

The aim of the study was to determine the effects of cholesterol intakes of greater (HC) or less than 300 mg/day (LC) (the upper advisable limit for the control of cholesterolaemia and the risk of cardiovascular disease) on a range of blood parameters, and to determine any influence such intakes might have on the consumption of food, energy and nutrients. The study subjects we one hundred and thirty young women. Food intake was determined using a 7-day dietary record (including a Sunday). A range of serum lipid parameters, and haematological and biochemical indicators of iron status were also determined. The percentage discrepancy between observed energy intake and theoretical energy expenditure was greater amongst LC subjects (9.7 +/- 18.8% compared to 5.5 +/- 24.4% in HC subjects) (P < 0.05). Analysis of covariance was therefore performed with respect to the degree of underestimation/overestimation of intake. The comparison of the adjusted means showed that HC subjects consumed greater quantities of eggs and meat and less alcohol, than did LC subjects. HC subjects also showed greater intakes of protein, carbohydrates, total fats, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, vitamin E, zinc and iron. At blood level, HC subjects showed greater quantities of red blood cells, haemoglobin and HDL cholesterol. No significant differences were seen between LC and HC subjects for the remaining blood and biochemical parameters investigated. The development of criteria for the greatest protection against cardiovascular disease whilst maintaining good nutritive condition, is the subject of studies soon to be commenced. Women may need different advice to men, owing to their greater need of iron. Greater quantities of foods rich in haem iron, such as meat and fish, might be appropriate for the female population.

Objective: The aim of the present investigation was to determine the differences in vitamin C status of 57 Spanish women smokers (S) and nonsmokers (N) in their third trimester of pregnancy, and the concentrations of vitamin C in their milk., Methods: Vitamin C intake during the third trimester was determined by recording the consumption of foods over a 5-day period (including a Sunday) and by registering vitamin C provided by dietary supplements. Vitamin C levels in maternal serum during this stage of pregnancy and in transition (days 13 to 14 of lactation) and mature milk (day 40 of lactation) were determined colorimetrically. Subjects also answered a questionnaire on their smoking habits during pregnancy., Results: S subjects (n = 16) showed a lower intake of fruits, vegetables and vitamin C than did N subjects (n = 41), though these differences were not significant (17.1% of N subjects and 31.2% of S subjects took less than 80 mg of vitamin C per day). Neither were any differences found between the two groups in serum vitamin C levels. However, N subjects showed significantly greater vitamin C levels in both transition and mature milk (431.6 +/- 296.5 mumol/L and 496.1 +/- 325.6 mumol/L, respectively for N subjects, and 233.7 +/- 202.9 mumol/L and 241.3 +/- 293.1 mumol/L for S subjects). Further investigations are necessary to determine the clinical consequences of these observations, though it is already known that maternal smoking favors peroxidation events in newborn infants., Conclusions: If the concentration of antioxidants (vitamin C) in smokers' breast milk is also lower, this might aggravate the peroxidation problems of their newborn.

The metabolic consequences of the consumption of a diet depend, in part, on the frequency and distribution of meals. The aim of the present study was to examine the number of meals taken per day by elderly persons, and to analyse the relationship between the number of meals per day on the intake of energy and nutrients, the incidence of obesity/overweight, and different cardiovascular risk factors. Food intake was monitored for five consecutive days using 'precise individual weighing' for institutionalised subjects (n = 58), and by means of a 'food intake record' for independent subjects (n = 92). The number of meals taken per day was recorded, along with anthropometric data, blood pressure and serum lipid and lipoprotein levels. No subject took only one meal per day, 7.3% took two, 56.7% took three, 33.3% took four and 2.7% took five. Only 10% of subjects took a mid-morning meal. Breakfast and merienda (a light evening snack) were the meals most frequently omitted. A positive, significant relationship was found to exist between the number of meals taken per day and the intake of fibre (r = 0.2737), thiamin (r = 0.1671), pyridoxine (r = 0.2060), magnesium (r = 0.2423) and the percentage of energy provided by carbohydrates (r = 0.2144). Women subjects who took 2-3 meals per day showed greater body mass indices and a greater proportion were overweight/obese compared to those who took 4-5 meals per day. Subjects who took 4-5 meals per day showed higher levels of HDL-cholesterol and lower levels of LDL-cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol and cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol than did those who took fewer meals per day. Inverse, significant relationships were also found between the number of meals per day and serum cholesterol (r = 0.2297) and LDL-cholesterol levels (r = 0.1984). Taking into account energy and nutrient intakes, the incidence of obesity/overweight and serum lipid and lipoprotein levels, the consumption of 4-5 meals per day would seem more advisable for the elderly than the taking of fewer meals.

The requirements of iron during gestation are very high and it is difficult to meet them, especially in women who go into a pregnancy with an exhausted storage of the mineral. In industrialized societies there is controversy regarding the usefulness or lack of supplementation. In some cases one recommends a routine iron supplementation during the second half of the pregnancy, in order to improve the situation of all women. Another tendency, keeping in mind the increased capacity for absorption seen during the gestation, is the selective supplementation of iron only after assessing the situation of the pregnant woman. A third alternative that may be useful in the future is that of monitoring the iron status (during the pregnancy and during the entire fertile period of the entire female population), increasing the consumption of foods that are rich in iron (meat, fish, fortified cereals), improving the bioavailability of the ingested iron (drinking orange juice with the meal or eating meat), and using weekly supplements of iron rather than daily supplements, as the former type of supplementation has an effect that is similar to that seen with a daily supplementation, and lacks many of the side effects of this (noncompliance with the standard, gastrointestinal trouble, decreased absorption of other nutrients).

Objective: To evaluate the breakfast intake of calcium and milk products and to determine whether these correlate with total intake of both calcium and milk products., Methods: Food taken at breakfast and throughout the day was recorded using a 7 consecutive day food record in 200 schoolchildren aged between 9 and 13 years., Results: 65.3% of boys and 80.5% of girls showed intakes of calcium which were lower than recommended. Milk products were the foods most frequently included in breakfast (95.5% of subjects included them in this meal). A relationship was seen between energy provided by breakfast and the quantities of milk products (r = 0.5735) and calcium (r = 0.6908) taken at this meal. A relationship was also seen between energy provided by breakfast and daily intake of milk products (r = 0.4633) and calcium (r = 0.4954). The percentage of intakes of calcium lower than those recommended decreased when breakfast provided > or = 20% of total energy intake, and when the consumption of milk products at breakfast was greater than the 50th percentile (200 ml). Subjects with breakfast milk product intakes > or = 200 ml showed higher intakes of the same over the rest of the day (233.3 +/-140.4 g) than did those who took lesser quantities of these foods at breakfast (161.5 +/- 100.6 g). Further, those who took > or = 25% of the recommended intake of calcium at breakfast showed greater intakes of the same over the rest of the day (600.4 +/- 213.8 mg compared to 510.8 +/- 200.7 mg in subjects with lower calcium intakes)., Conclusions: The intake of milk products (r = 0.7587) and calcium (r = 0.7223) at breakfast correlates with the consumption of these foods in the whole diet. However, the total daily intake of milk products and calcium does not depend solely on breakfast intake. Subjects with the greatest intakes at breakfast also showed greater intakes over the rest of the day (r = 0.3953 for milk products and r = 0.4122 for calcium).

The aim of the present study was to analyse the differences between the breakfast habits of obese/overweight (O) (those with body mass index [BMI] above the 75th percentile) and normal weight schoolchildren (N) (those with BMI equal to or below the 75th percentile). A seven consecutive days "food record" was used to record the intake of foods at breakfast and throughout the rest of the day. O subjects, and in particular female O subjects, omitted breakfast more frequently and took significantly smaller quantities of cereals than did N subjects. The energy supplied by breakfast, measured as a percentage of energy expenditure, was significantly lower in O subjects (17.0 +/- 8.5% in males and 14.6 +/- 6.1% in females) than in N subjects (20.9 +/- 9.4% in males and 17.6 +/- 6.5% in females). With respect to the energy and nutrients supplied by breakfast, O subjects took lower quantities of carbohydrates, thiamin, niacin, pyridoxine, vitamin D and iron than did N subjects. The energy profiles of O subjects breakfasts were more imbalanced than those of N subjects. A significant difference was seen between the amounts of energy supplied by carbohydrates. Without doubt, O subjects have less satisfactory breakfast habits than N subjects. This might be a reflection of whole diet that is less adequate, however, it is possible that an inadequate breakfast contributes to the making of poor food choices over the rest of the day, and, in the long term, to an increased risk of obesity.

In a group of 130 women of fertile age (24.5 +/- 2.7 years), the consumption of meat and meat products was evaluated in order to determine the effect of this food group on blood and biochemical parameters that act as indicators of iron status, and on a range of serum lipid parameters that indicate cardiovascular risk. Food intake was monitored using a "Food Record" for seven days, including a Sunday. Subjects were divided into two groups: those who took > or = 100 g/day of meat (25th percentile) (high consumption--HC) (n = 102), and those with lesser intakes (low consumption--LC) (n = 28). Dietary data were adjusted to take into account differences in discrepancies in reporting between the two groups. The greater consumption of meat observed in HC subjects, despite its association with greater intakes of lipids (both in g/day and % of energy) and cholesterol (in mg/day and mg/1000 Kcal), did not seem to be related to any impairment of blood lipid profiles. Neither was it seen to be related to increased bodyweight nor raised blood pressure. It should not, therefore, bring about any increased risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the greater intake of thiamine, niacin, zinc and iron (total and haem) in HC subjects suggests that these may have a better nutritive status (with respect to certain nutrients) than do LC subjects. In relation to iron status. HC subjects showed higher levels of haemoglobin, haematocrit and mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC). These results show that restrictive criteria, with respect to the consumption of meat and meat products, could have negative repercussions on the nutritive status and health of certain groups within the population. In the female population, such criteria may be associated with impairment of iron status, without affording any greater level of protection against cardiovascular disease, or be of any help in the control of bodyweight.

Iron deficiency is one of the most common nutritional problems in the world. It is frequent in both developed and developing countries and mainly affects women of childbearing age. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence of iron deficiency in a group of young women from Madrid, Spain. The study subjects were a group of 130 women aged between 19 and 35 (24.53 +/- 0.24 years). Measurements were made of iron intake and also of the haematological and biochemical indicators of iron status. 10.7% of subjects showed iron deficiency (defined as the recording of at least two indicator parameters with values below normal). The high incidence of iron deficiency at blood level (10.7%) coincided with the low iron intake of these subjects (11.08 +/- 2.98 mg/day). 98.3% of subjects showed intakes below recommended. Observed intake covered only 61.6% of recommended intake. 3.9% of subjects presented ferropenic anaemia, i.e. they showed both iron deficiency and low haemoglobin levels.

The aim of this investigation was to study the relationship between concern about nutrition and food consumption in 533 university students (112 men and 421 women), aged 21.7 +/- 2.1 years old. Fish, dairy products and fruit were consumed in quite satisfactory quantities though cereals and vegetables were consumed less frequently than recommended. Men were found to consume greater quantities of milk, meat, bread and alcoholic drinks, while women ate more fruit and vegetables than men. 35.4% of subjects said they were especially concerned about the intake of fat and cholesterol, 24.5% expressed special interest in weight control and 18.2% recorded worries about the intake of vitamins and minerals. 21.6% of subjects expressed no worries at all. Multiple regression analysis showed no differences in concern about nutrition with respect to the sex or body mass index (BMI) of subjects. However, as age increased, the number of subjects expressing no concern fell whilst worries over the quantity of vitamins and minerals in the diet increased. Worries about bodyweight were found to rise with BMI. However, amongst those who wanted to lose weight, 42.2% of women and 7.4% of men had a BMI < 20 kg/m2. These persons, already very slim (below recommended values), still wished to lose weight and could become susceptible to nutritional imbalances. Relationships between concerns and food habits were scarce. Although fat and cholesterol were a concern in theory, the consumption of foodstuffs such as meat and eggs was quite high. However, relationships were found between concern over the vitamin and mineral content of the diet and the intake of supplements, and concern over bodyweight and intake of products that aid slimming. Nutrition educators may find this information useful in the design of their messages and educational programs.

The energy profile of the diet of the Spanish population is imbalanced, showing excessive intake of fats and protein and insufficient intake of carbohydrates. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether this imbalance also existed in 110 preschool children between 2 and 6 years of age, and to examine the relationship between their breakfast and whole diet energy profiles. The results obtained show that subjects who consumed less carbohydrate (< 50% of energy intake) or more fat (> 35% of total intake) at breakfast showed poorer energy profiles and poorer fat quality over their whole diet. Significant and positive correlations were found between energy supplied at breakfast by protein, fats, carbohydrates, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, and the same parameters measured for the whole diet.

The aim of this investigation was to analyse the influence of the number of meals per day on a range of cardiovascular risk factors and on the energy and nutrient intakes of a group of elderly people. The participants in this study were 150 elderly people (64 men and 86 women) from Madrid. Food intake was followed over a period of 5 days. "Precise individual weighing" was used to determine the intake of institutionalized subjects (n = 58) whilst "food intake records" were used to register the same for independent subjects (n = 92). The nutrient and energy intake of the studied population was then determined from these data. The number of meals taken was also recorded. Serum cholesterol and triacylglycerol levels were determined using enzymatic methods. In this population, the meal most frequently omitted was breakfast. No subject took only one meal per day, though 7.4% took only two. 56.6% took three meals and 36% took four. No subject took more than four meals per day. As the number of meals taken increased, so too the covering of theoretical energy expenditure, and the intakes of a range of nutrients became closer to those recommended e.g. proteins, fibre, vitamin C, thiamin, riboflavin, calcium, magnesium and iodine. As the number of meals taken per day increased, carbohydrate intake (in g/1000 Kcal and as % of energy) also increased, and approached recommended levels more closely. As observed in other studies, blood cholesterol levels were seen to be negatively correlated with increasing number of meals (r = -0.2297, p < 0.05). Further, those subjects who distributed their food intake more evenly throughout the day showed lower serum cholesterol (p < 0.05). VLDL-cholesterol (p < 0.05) and triacylglycerol levels (p < 0.05). The results favour the distribution of energy intake over the day as a method of improving nutritional status and as a factor that might improve blood lipid profiles.

A study was made of the dietary habits and intake of energy and nutrients of 127 elderly people aged between 65 and 95 (60 men and 67 women). The method employed involved the recording of food consumption over a period of five days. Subjects were divided into two groups according to body mass index: those who were overweight or obese (0) (BMI > or = 25 Kg/m2), who made up 60% of the experimental population, and those with normal bodyweight (NW) (BMI < 25 Kg/m2) (40%). The percentage of subjects who took no breakfast was somewhat higher amongst members of group 0 (5.6% compared to 3.9% of NW subjects). Further, the breakfast of 0 subjects was less varied, smaller and contributed less to daily energy intake and the covering of theoretical energy expenditure than did the breakfasts of NW subjects. 0 subjects also took less time over their breakfasts. More than half (58.8%) of NW subjects took what might be considered a satisfactory breakfast, i.e. this meal provided more than 20% of the total energy intake. Only 29.6% of 0 subjects took breakfasts of similar energetic value. NW subjects consumed greater quantities of sugars and fruits at breakfasts and also more carbohydrates, fibre, vitamin E and iron than did 0 subjects. The shorter length of time spent at breakfast by 0 subjects, their consumption of smaller and less varied breakfasts and the composition of the same, could indicate the existence of less healthy breakfast habits amongst the overweight and obese. This could be the reflection of inadequate food habits all round, or be a conditioning factor prompting 0 subjects to make poorer food choices for the rest of the day. Though some people omit breakfast in an attempt to control their weight, this is probably an inadvisable practice. The control of bodyweight might be more efficiently accomplished by taking an adequate breakfast and better distributing total calorie intake across the day, avoiding its concentration into one or two meals.

Objective: The objective of this study was to gain more knowledge about the breakfast habits of different groups of elderly people and to investigate the differences in breakfast habits between overweight and normal weight elderly subjects., Methods: A study was made of the food preferences, dietary habits and the intake of energy and nutrients at breakfast in a group of 122 elderly Spanish people (65 men and 57 women) aged 75.7+/-8.7 years. Study participants were divided into two groups: overweight and obese subjects (O) with a body mass index (BMI)>or=25 kg/m2 (58% of the population), and normal weight subjects (NW) with a BMI<25 kg/m2 (42% of the population). The members of each group were further divided into subgroups according to age (>or=80 years of age (Y) and

An investigation was made into the breakfast habits of 150 elderly people between 65 and 95 years of age. The food intake of 58 institutionalized subjects was followed by means of "precise individual weighing of food". The food intake of 92 subjects living independently was followed using a prospective method involving the keeping of a "weighed food record". For all subjects the study lasted 5 consecutive days including a Sunday. Institutionalized subjects spent more time at breakfast (p < 0.01 in women) and the food they consumed was more varied, both in terms of number of foods (p < 0.001) and food groups (p < 0.001). Their breakfasts included more fruit (P < 0.001), fibre (P < 0.05 in women) and vitamin A (P < 0.01) than those of independent subjects, 7% of whom took no breakfast at all with a further 8% consuming only a glass of milk or fruit juice. 62.7% of independent and 43.1% of institutionalized subjects consumed an inadequate breakfast (i.e. their breakfasts provided less than 20% of their energy expenditure). The breakfasts of institutionalized subjects contained a greater percentage of their total daily intake of carbohydrates (P < 0.001 in women), fibre (P < 0.01 in women), thiamine (p < 0.05 in women), vitamin B12 (p < 0.05 in women, p < 0.001 in men), vitamin D (p < 0.01 in women) and magnesium (p < 0.05 in women). Given the importance of breakfast in the maintenance of a satisfactory nutritive condition, these results suggest that both qualitative and quantitative improvements of elderly people's breakfasts are required. Residing at an old people's home seems to improve the quality of breakfast consumed, especially for elderly women.