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Mythography is a modern scholarly term used to describe a wide variety of ancient writing practices, all in prose, that treat the stories that we designate as myth. It is an index term that encompasses both systematic mythography, which seeks to narrate, organize, and systematize mythical stories (as exemplified in its best surviving representative, the Library of Apollodorus (9)), and interpretative mythography, which aims at uncovering the origins or hidden meanings of the surface myths through rationalizing and allegorizing approaches. Even within these categories the products may differ widely, illustrating the basic point that mythography is as protean as myth itself and depends on the time, place, and purposes of production. Mythography was a continuous activity from the archaic period into late antiquity and beyond, although the vast majority of extant mythographical texts belong to the imperial period. From the Hellenistic period, which must have been instrumental in defining the forms and variety of mythography, we have, apart from Palaephatus’s On Unbelievable Stories, only fragmentary authors or later abridgements. The earliest prose writers, although never termed “mythographers” in antiquity, nevertheless established the methodological principles that would become the hallmarks of mythographical writing.

The main aim of this chapter is to survey and problematize our current state of knowledge of mythographical scholarship during the Hellenistic period. This era is widely considered crucial in the formation of mythography, but aside from the surviving work of Palaephatus, all the other evidence is scattered, fragmentary, and difficult to interpret. The chapter presents three case studies considering the work of Asclepiades of Tragilus, Lysimachus of Alexandria, and Apollodorus of Athens to test the identification of these three authors as mythographers and finds the evidence inconclusive, highlighting the need for new and further research into myth reception in the Hellenistic era.

This introduction provides an overview of the contents of the handbook and attempts to situate the information and arguments of the individual chapters in the context of Greek and Roman mythographical studies today, which have changed dramatically in the last three decades. Additionally, a brief survey of the shifting modes of mythography in antiquity is presented. While a simple exposition is impossible and a complete overarching theory and definition cannot be provided, we note how many of the contributions point toward mythography as a mental orientation or intellectual impulse rather than a clear-cut genre—which better explains the great variety of mythographical products and the numerous occasions where mythography was integrated into other writing practices in the ancient world.

Tracing the role of myth and mythography throughout the main periods of a student’s career, this chapter articulates the way that educational practices reflect and reinforce a mythographical mindset, one that organizes and employs mythical data in a variety of ways. From the very beginning students were asked to learn mythical names and combine like with like, then (under a grammaticus) copy and create their own mythical narratives (systematic mythography); as their rhetorical training progressed (under a rhetor), these same students were asked to manipulate myths in new ways, to raise objections (similar to rationalization), to defend the account (similar to allegorizing), and to create more advanced compositions in encomium, comparison and ethopoiia.

This chapter provides a survey of the various ways that Greek mythographical information was transmitted in Latin. The first section offers an overview of the surviving collections devoted almost entirely to mythographical material, the Fabulae and the second book of De Astronomia, both attributed to someone named Hyginus, as well as the collection of mostly star myths embedded in the so-called Germanicus scholia. The second half of the chapter provides a review of the mythographical material found in the surviving exegetical traditions for major Roman poets, Vergil, Statius, and the Ovidian Narrationes, all of which was transmitted in Latin to match the target text of study.

The reaction pathways of glycerol on TiO2(110) have been studied by molecular beam dosing and temperature-programmed desorption. The majority of adsorbed glycerol undergoes reactions to yield water...

Acetonitrile thin films were prepared on Pt(111) and on graphene on Pt(111) using molecular beam techniques. Temperature programed desorption (TPD) experiments of acetonitrile on Pt(111) displayed ...

Single-atom catalysis has been a topic of increasing interest due to the potential for improved selectivity, reactivity, and catalyst cost. However, single-atom catalysts are still difficult to cha...

Many have written about trope ontology, but relatively few have considered its implications for some of the ontological conditions needed for us to have knowledge. I explore the resources of trope ontology to meet those conditions. With J. P. Moreland, I argue that, being simple, we can eliminate tropes’ qualitative contents without ontological loss, resulting in bare individuators. Then I extend Moreland’s argument, arguing that tropes undermine some of the needed ontological conditions for knowledge. Yet, we do know many things, and trope nominalists presuppose that too. Therefore, I consider three counter-arguments, starting with David Lewis’s rebuttal based on appeal to brute facts. Second, I explore Jeffrey Brower’s recent proposal as a possible solution. Last, I consider Robert Garcia’s recent distinction between module and modifier tropes, to see if it can be of assistance. I conclude, however, that trope nominalism cannot preserve some of the needed ontology to have knowledge.

The adsorption of cyclohexane, benzene, and alkyl-substituted benzene derivatives is studied on rutile TiO2(110) by a combination of molecular beam dosing, temperature-programmed desorption, and density functional theory (DFT). An inversion analysis is used to extract the coverage-dependent desorption energies from TiO2(110). The values of the suitable prefactors are derived from simple statistical mechanical models assuming different limits in the adsorbate mobility on the surface. The prefactor values determined using the vibrational frequencies from DFT calculations corroborate this analysis and show that the adsorbates are mobile in one or two dimensions on a corrugated TiO2(110) surface. The adsorption of benzene derivatives is found to be dominated by the dative Lewis acid–base interactions of the π system with the surface Ti ions. While the desorption energy generally increases with increasing the length and the number of substituents, the difference between the desorption energies decreases as the...

The interaction of carbon dioxide (CO2) with a graphene-covered Pt(111) surface was investigated using temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) and reflection absorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS). The TPD spectra show monolayer and multilayer desorption peaks; however, the multilayer peak is not well-separated from the monolayer peak. The TPD spectra for submonolayer and multilayer coverages align on separate common leading edges. This alignment is a signature of zero-order desorption kinetics. The RAIRS spectra for submonolayer coverages have a relatively sharp peak at ∼2350 cm–1, which is assigned to the ν3 asymmetric stretch. The peak is observed at the onset of CO2 adsorption, and the area of the peak increases linearly with coverage. This suggests that CO2 does not lie flat on the surface but instead has a component of its bond axis perpendicular to the graphene surface.

Crystalline acetonitrile has two polymorphs, a high-temperature (HT) phase that is stable between 217 K and its melting point at 229 K and a low-temperature (LT) phase that is stable below 217 K. Solid acetonitrile films can be prepared by vapor deposition in an ultrahigh vacuum chamber. To prevent sublimation of the film, temperatures are often kept below 150 K. While the LT phase is thermodynamically favored at these low temperatures, such preparation usually results in the formation of the metastable HT polymorph. In this work we use reflection adsorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS) and temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) experiments to investigate the effects of the deposition temperature and underlying substrate on the morphology of acetonitrile films prepared with molecular beam deposition. We obtained the elusive LT phase when dosing at 120 K on a graphene substrate and on a crystalline decane layer. Dosing acetonitrile on other surfaces produced the HT phase, as did annealing of amorphous films. We used TPD experiments to determine the Gibbs energy difference between the HT and the LT phases. Our ΔG values agree with extrapolation of equilibrium calorimetry data. We also observed that acetonitrile films were amorphous when dosed at temperatures ≤ 60 K and porous for temperatures ≤ 50 K.

The desorption of benzene, 1,3,5-trifluorobenzene (TFB), and hexafluorobenzene (HFB) from a graphene covered Pt(111) substrate was investigated using temperature-programmed desorption (TPD). All three species have well-resolved monolayer and second-layer desorption peaks. The desorption spectra for submonolayer coverages of benzene and HFB are consistent with first-order desorption kinetics. In contrast, the submonolayer TPD spectra for TFB align on a common leading-edge, which is indicative of zero-order desorption kinetics. The desorption behavior of the three molecules can be correlated with the strength of the quadrupole moments. Calculations (second-order Møller-Plesset perturbation and density functional theory) show that the potential minimum for coplanar TFB dimers is more than a factor of 2 greater than that for either benzene or HFB dimers. The calculations support the interpretation that benzene and HFB are less likely to form the two-dimensional islands that are needed for submonolayer zero-order desorption kinetics.

The adsorption of the C2 hydrocarbons, including ethane, ethene, and ethyne, are studied on magnetite Fe3O4(001) by a combination of molecular beam dosing, temperature programmed desorption, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The ethane desorption profile has a single temperature invariant peak at 100 K, while ethene and ethyne exhibit additional peaks at ∼120 -and ∼135 K. An inversion analysis is used to extract coverage-dependent desorption energies as well as coverage-averaged prefactors for each molecule. Ethene and ethyne exhibit moderate coverage-dependent desorption energies decreasing from ∼80 to ∼30 kJ/mol at saturation, while ethane shows a relatively coverage invariant desorption energy ∼28 kJ/mol. The desorption energies of the C2 hydrocarbons increase in the order of increasing bond order. This is likely due to the enhanced interaction of the ethene and ethyne π system to the coordinatively unsaturated octahedral Fe sites (Feoct) on the oxide surface. The saturation coverages of each C2 hydrocarbon at 82 K were also determined. These match well with the 2-dimensional area determined from their liquid densities.

William Lane Craig rejects Platonism (the view that uncreated abstract objects (AOs) exist) in favor of nominalism because he believes Platonism fatally compromises God’s aseity. For Craig, concrete particulars (including essences) exist, but properties do not. Yet, we use property-talk, following Carnap’s “linguistic frameworks.” There is, however, a high cost to Craig’s view. I survey his views and then explore the importance of essences. But, next, I show that his nominalism undermines them. Thus, we have just interpretations of reality. Worse, nominalism undermines creation’s determinacy. Last, I suggest AOs are created, but in a more fundamental sense than Craig considers.

This article argues, in a series of discrete but interconnected notes, that Statius engages consistently and consciously with mythographical works—prose collections and exegesis on myth as myth—in the creation of his two major catalogs in theThebaid, the catalog of Argive allies at 4.1-344 and that of Theban allies at 7.243-373. Both are patently based on Homer’s ‘Catalog of Ships’, but Statius reshapes his model by engaging ingeniously with mythographical and geographical works in prose to invent a unique pre-Iliadiclandscape. This paper also explores some of the literary ways in which Statius reinvents Homer’s catalog, including offering his readers mythological puzzles that require knowledge both of Homer’s text and subsequent scholarship thereon.

Understanding the deoxygenation of biomass-derived alcohols is of great importance for the conversion of renewable biomass to energy carriers. In this work, we present unique reaction pathways for phenylmethanol on a rutile TiO2(110) by using a combination of molecular beam dosing and temperature-programmed desorption. The results from both regular and OD-labeled phenylmethanol demonstrate that hydroxyl hydrogen is transferred to the benzyl group to yield methylbenzene between 300 and 480 K. In the competing reaction, the hydroxyl hydrogen is also converted to water in the same temperature range. Once the hydroxyl hydrogen is depleted above 480 K, the remaining phenylmethoxy surface species undergo C–O bond cleavage yielding gas-phase benzyl radical species. These findings reveal the formation of free radical species from the interaction of phenylmethanol with TiO2(110) and demonstrate a direct mechanism for deoxygenation of lignin-derived benzylic alcohols to aromatics on TiO2.

Significance Water is ubiquitous, but its physical properties are anomalous compared with most liquids. Because the anomalies become enhanced upon cooling, understanding the behavior of deeply supercooled water is critical. Unfortunately, experiments below ∼236 K at ambient pressure are difficult due to uncontrolled crystallization. Using a pulsed-laser–heating technique, we have determined the crystalline-ice growth rate and liquid-water diffusivity for temperatures between 180 and 262 K in ultrahigh-vacuum conditions. The fact that both of these quantities are smoothly varying rules out the hypothesis that water’s properties have a singularity at or near 228 K. However, the results are consistent with a previous prediction for the diffusivity that assumed no thermodynamic transitions occur in the supercooled region.

The growth rate of crystalline ice (CI) in amorphous solid water (ASW) films was investigated using reflection absorption infrared spectroscopy. Two different experiments were set up to measure rates of the crystallization front propagation from the underlying crystalline template upward and from the vacuum interface downward. In one set of experiments, layers of ASW (5% D2O in H2O) were grown on a CI template and capped with a decane layer. In isothermal experiments from 140 to 150 K, crystallization was observed from the onset (no induction time) and the extent of crystallization increased linearly with time. In a second set of experiments, uncapped ASW films without a CI template were studied. The films were created by placing a 100 ML isotopic layer (5% D2O in H2O) at various positions in a 1000 ML ASW (H2O) film. The CI growth rates obtained from the two configurations (capped films with a CI template and uncapped films without a CI template) are in quantitative agreement. The results support the idea that for ASW films in a vacuum, a crystalline layer forms at the surface that then acts as a CI template for a growth front that moves downward into the film.

We measure the isothermal crystallization kinetics of amorphous acetonitrile films using molecular beam dosing and reflection adsorption infrared spectroscopy techniques. Experiments on a graphene covered Pt(111) substrate revealed that the crystallization rate slows dramatically during long time periods and that the overall kinetics cannot be described by a simple application of the Avrami equation. The crystallization kinetics also have a thickness dependence with the thinner films crystallizing much slower than the thicker ones. Additional experiments showed that decane layers at both the substrate and vacuum interfaces can also affect the crystallization rates. A comparison of the crystallization rates for CH3CN and CD3CN films showed only an isotope effect of ∼1.09. When amorphous films were deposited on a crystalline film, the crystalline layer did not act as a template for the formation of a crystalline growth front. These overall results suggest that the crystallization kinetics are complicated, indicating the possibility of multiple nucleation and growth mechanisms.

Here, the crystallization kinetics of nanoscale amorphous solid water (ASW) films are investigated using temperature-programmed desorption (TPD) and reflection absorption infrared spectroscopy (RAIRS). TPD measurements are used to probe surface crystallization and RAIRS measurements are used to probe bulk crystallization. Isothermal TPD results show that surface crystallization is independent of the film thickness (from 100 to 1000 ML). Conversely, the RAIRS measurements show that the bulk crystallization time increases linearly with increasing film thickness. These results suggest that nucleation and crystallization begin at the ASW/vacuum interface and then the crystallization growth front propagates linearly into the bulk. This mechanism was confirmed by selective placement of an isotopic layer (5% D2O in H2O) at various positions in an ASW (H2O) film. In this case, the closer the isotopic layer was to the vacuum interface, the earlier the isotopic layer crystallized. These experiments provide direct evidence to confirm that ASW crystallization in vacuum proceeds by a “top-down” crystallization mechanism.

Temperature programmed desorption and molecular beam scattering were used to study the adsorption and desorption of small hydrocarbons (n-alkanes, 1-alkenes and 1-alkynes of C1–C4) on rutile TiO2(110). We show that the sticking coefficients for all the hydrocarbons are close to unity (> 0.95) at an adsorption temperature of 60 K. The desorption energies for hydrocarbons of the same chain length increase from n-alkanes to 1-alkenes and to 1-alkynes. This trend is likely a consequence of additional dative bonding of the alkene and alkyne π system to the coordinatively unsaturated Ti5c sites. Similar to previous studies on the adsorption of n-alkanes on metal and metal oxide surfaces, we find that the desorption energies within each group (n-alkanes vs. 1-alkenes vs. 1-alkynes) from Ti5c sites increase linearly with the chain length. The absolute saturation coverages of each hydrocarbon on Ti5c sites were also determined. The saturation coverage of CH4, is found to be ~ 2/3 monolayer (ML). The saturation coverages of C2–C4 hydrocarbons are found nearly independent of the chain length with values of ~ 1/2 ML for n-alkanes and 1-alkenes and 2/3 ML for 1-alkynes. This result is surprising considering their similar sizes.

The melting and wetting of nanoscale crystalline ice films on Pt(111) that are transiently heated above the melting point in ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) using nanosecond laser pulses are studied with infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy and Kr temperature-programmed desorption. The as-grown crystalline ice films consist of nanoscale ice crystallites embedded in a hydrophobic water monolayer. Upon heating, these crystallites melt to form nanoscale droplets of liquid water. Rapid cooling after each pulse quenches the films, allowing them to be interrogated with UHV surface science techniques. With each successive heat pulse, these liquid drops spread across the surface until it is entirely covered with a multilayer water film. These results, which show that nanoscale water films completely wet Pt(111), are in contrast to molecular dynamics simulations predicting partial wetting of water drops on a hydrophobic water monolayer. The results provide valuable insights into the wetting characteristics of nanoscale water films on a clean, well-characterized, single-crystal surface.

The interaction of methanol with iron oxide surfaces is of interest due to its potential in hydrogen storage and from a fundamental perspective as a chemical probe of reactivity. We present here a study examining the adsorption and reaction of methanol on magnetite Fe3O4(001) at cryogenic temperatures using a combination of temperature programmed desorption, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and scanning tunneling microscopy. The methanol desorption profile from Fe3O4(001) is complex, exhibiting peaks at 140 K, 173 K, 230 K, and 268 K, corresponding to the desorption of intact methanol, as well as peaks at 341 K and 495 K due to the reaction of methoxy intermediates. The saturation of a monolayer of methanol corresponds to ∼5 molecules/unit cell (u.c.), which is slightly higher than the number of surface octahedral iron atoms of 4/u.c. We probe the kinetics and thermodynamics of the desorption of molecular methanol using inversion analysis. The deconvolution of the complex desorption profile into individual peaks allows for calculations of both the desorption energy and the prefactor of each feature. The initial 0.7 methanol/u.c. reacts to form methoxy and hydroxy intermediates at 180 K, which remain on the surface above room temperature after intact methanol has desorbed. The methoxy species react via one of two channels, a recombination reaction with surface hydroxyls to form additional methanol at ∼350 K and a disproportionation reaction to form methanol and formaldehyde at ∼500 K. Only 20% of the methoxy species undergo the disproportionation reaction, with most of them reacting via the 350 K pathway.

Isotopic exchange reactions in mixed D

This essay analyzes the narrative accounts of Deucalion’s flood within the broader context of human creation in two ancient mythographical works of myth (Ovid, Apollodorus) and three modern handbooks. In each case the mythographer has been forced to reshape the episodic-one might say disparate and conflicting -nature of her or his sources and invent new connective tissue to organize early mythic time. The authorial voice and narrative aims of all writers attempting to create a coherent and comprehensive account of this period remain operative even in subliterary works such as Apollodorus’ Bibliotheke and render source criticism problematic.

Using scanning probe microscopy and temperature programed desorption we examined the interaction between water and two common clathrate-forming gases, methane and isobutane, at low temperature and low pressure. Water co-deposited with up to 10–1 mbar methane or 10–5 mbar isobutane at 140 K onto a Pt(111) substrate yielded pure crystalline ice, i.e., the exposure to up to ~ 107 gas molecules for each deposited water molecule did not have any detectable effect on the growing films. Exposing metastable, less than 2 molecular layers thick, water films to 10–5 mbar methane does not alter their morphology, suggesting that the presence of the Pt(111) surface is not a strong driver for hydrate formation. This weak water–gas interaction at low pressures is supported by our thermal desorption measurements from amorphous solid water and crystalline ice where 1 ML of methane desorbs near ~ 43 K and isobutane desorbs near ~ 100 K. As a result, similar desorption temperatures were observed for desorption from amorphous solid water.

Inert gas permeation is used to investigate the formation of stable glasses of toluene and ethylbenzene. The effect of deposition temperature (T(dep)) on the kinetic stability of the vapor deposited glasses is determined using Kr desorption spectra from within sandwich layers of either toluene or ethylbenzene. The results for toluene show that the most stable glass is formed at T(dep) = 0.92 T(g), although glasses with a kinetic stability within 50% of the most stable glass were found with deposition temperatures from 0.85 to 0.95 T(g). Similar results were found for ethylbenzene, which formed its most stable glass at 0.91 T(g) and formed stable glasses from 0.81 to 0.96 T(g). These results are consistent with recent calorimetric studies and demonstrate that the inert gas permeation technique provides a direct method to observe the onset of molecular translation motion that accompanies the glass to supercooled liquid transition.

We have investigated the nucleation and growth of crystalline ice in 0.24 μm thick, supercooled water films adsorbed on Pt(111). The films were transiently heated with ∼10 ns infrared laser pulses, which produced typical heating and cooling rates of ∼109–1010 K/s. The crystallization of these water films was monitored with infrared spectroscopy. The experimental conditions were chosen to suppress ice nucleation at both the water/metal and water/vacuum interfaces. Furthermore, internal pressure increases due to curvature effects are precluded in these flat films. Therefore, the experiments were sensitive to the homogeneous ice nucleation rate from ∼210 to 225 K. The experiments show that Jmax, the maximum for the homogeneous ice nucleation rate, J(T), needs to be ≥1026 m–3 s–1 and is likely to be ∼1029±2 m–3 s–1. We argue that such large nucleation rates are consistent with experiments on hyperquenched glassy water, which typically have crystalline fractions of ∼1% or more.