Search

While sex work is a multidimensional phenomenon, in feminist theory it has largely been discussed within dichotomous categories of work v. violence- While previously literature which associated prostitution with violence prevailed, recent research has focused more on its work dimension. Most of the recent empirical studies have challenged the dichotomous thinking around agency/victimhood. Drawing on the recent feminist literature on sex work, in this paper we provide an analysis of sex workers’ professional experiences in Croatia, against the background of the criminalised context and gendered socio-economic realities. As a part of the project Regulation of Prostitution in Croatia, we conducted 10 interviews with sex workers from the two largest cities in Croatia. For the purposes of this paper, we analysed motivations for entry, self-perception of sex work ; organisation and professional strategies to enhance security and autonomy ; strategies to cope with criminalisation and stigmatisation. Our preliminary findings show that motivation and self-perception in interplay with socio-economic structures has a significant impact on their everyday experiences of doing sex work and that protective and coping strategies vary significantly depending on the prostitution sites they engage in, as well as their gender. Those participants whose motivation for entry was not purely economic but included interest in sex (which was true for all men), and who had positive understanding of sex work, tended to work in more elite settings and earn more money, exercised more autonomy and had less problems with criminalisation and stigmatisation.

Stavovi osoba koje se bave prostitucijom U ovoj kategoriji imali smo dvije skupine sugovornika – osobe koje se prostitucijom bave kako bi preživjele (bilo da su beskućnice, ovisnici o drogi ili alkoholu) i osobe koje prodaju seksualnih usluga doživljavaju kao posao.Svi rade samostalno, a manjina je prije imala organizatore. Njihove su priče vrlo različite i u odnosu na obiteljske i životne (ne)prilike i iskustva u prostituciji, kao i razloge ulaska. U prvoj skupini razlozi su povezani s drogom i/li lošim obiteljskim prilikama, dok u drugoj skupini osim dominantnog razloga mogućnosti dobre zarade u kontekstu loših mogućnosti zapošljavanja (posebice za žene s djecom), nalazimo i interes za seksualnim iskustvima. Osobe iz prve skupine doživjele su puno više traumatskih iskustava i prisile u različitim segmentima života, uključujući bavljenje prostitucijom, na koju gledaju vrlo negativno i doživljavaju je ne kao posao već nuždu. Osobe iz druge skupine navode i puno pozitivnih značajki svog posla (kako definiraju prostituciju), kao što su vlastita organizacija vremena, seksualno istraživanje. Zadovoljstvo s poslom posebice iskazuju oni koji imaju visok stupanj autonomije i vrlo dobro zarađuju. Kao negativne strane najčešće su navedene financijska nesigurnost i podložnost nasilju, kao posljedice ilegalnosti. Što se tiče odnosa sa klijentima, osobe u prvoj skupini ne ostvaruju dublje odnose s klijentima, dok osobe u drugoj skupini navode i prijateljstva te općenito dobra iskustva, uz određene iznimke nasilnih klijenata ili klijenata koji ne žele platiti. Što se tiče organizatora, nekoliko osoba (iz obje kategorije) bile su u eksploatacijskim odnosima, dok su neke navele i pozitivne strane, kao što je organizacija prostora i posla. Što se tiče policije, većina naših sugovornika nije imala iskustva s policijom i pravosuđem vezano uz prostituciju. Oni koji jesu problematiziraju odnos tih institucija prema njima, a svima predstavlja nelagodu mogućnost pokretanja prekršajnog postupka. Nadalje, svi problematiziraju nedostatak policijske zaštite budući da se pozivanjem policije izlažu progonu. Velika većina naših sugovornica i sugovornika zalaže se za neki oblik regulacije prostitucije, koji bi im omogućio legalno stjecanje novaca, uzimanje kredita te stjecanje zdravstvenog i socijalnog osiguranja. Samo se dvije osobe protive legalizaciji jer se boje da bi im to smanjilo zaradu.

This presentation gives an analysis of the use of the term gender in international human rights law – as well as the current contestations and challenges raised by the anti-gender movements, assessing the consequences of the backlash.

In most countries of the Central and Eastern Europe and Central Asia prostitution is criminalised through public order laws, based on the socialist legacy which defined prostitution as unproductive and immoral. Criminalisation has not been much challenged in these societies despite its serious impact on sex workers’ human rights. In this article we challenge the assumption that criminalisation of sex workers could be justified by the protection of public order. Based on the analysis of case-law of the municipal misdemeanour courts in the two largest Croatian cities (Zagreb and Split), in the period from 2014 to 2019, we show how laws criminalising sex workers are not only ineffective, but also harmful for public order if public order is conceived as based on the principle of equality, legality and respect for human rights.

Different ideological positions determine models or policies aimed at regulating prostitution, respectively persons who engage in prostitution, organize prostitution or seek services in that domain of social life. In this paper, we present the views of relevant experts on prostitution policies in the Republic of Croatia. The conclusions of the paper are based on a qualitative research conducted in semi-structured interviews on a sample of 15 experts from different fields (ministries, government offices, independent state bodies, parliamentary committees and civil society organizations) in whose scope of regulation is the phenomenon of prostitution or related problems. Interviewees most often place prostitution either in the discourse of violence and exploitation or sexual labor. Most experts advocate a change in the model of regulation of prostitution, and among the most frequently mentioned European models, which the Croatian model could be modeled on, are the Swedish model of criminalization of clients, the decriminalization model and the model of legalization. It is noticeable that civil society professionals who devise harm reduction programs and work with people who sell sexual services are more likely to opt for liberal models of regulating prostitution. All experts emphasize the importance of adopting policies that would make it easier to get out of prostitution.

Prostitution entails many controversies related to the best public policy. As an instance of morality politics, prostitution policy is influenced by ideology. In addition to different feminist discourses, dominant frames include sex work, threat to public safety, public order and morality, threat to public health, trafficking in human beings. While the policies in Europe differ, in the most European countries prostitution is not prohibited and sex workers are not directly criminalised. The exceptions are some former socialist/communist countries of the CEE and Central Asia, including Croatia, which criminalise engaging into prostition, justified by the protection of public order. This has significant negative impact on the rights of sex workers.

This paper presents and analysis of prostitution policy in Croatia on the basis of the examination of the main legal and policy documents related to the phenomenon. It looks in particular whether gender perspective is included in the existing or proposed prostitution policies. By using critical frame analysis, the paper identifies 5 dominant policy frames: public peace and order frame, protection of sexual freedoms frame, public health frame, gender-based violence frame, and sex work frame.

This lecture provides an analysis of the use of the term gender in international human rights law – both in the discourse on women’s rights and on sexual orientation and gender identity – as well as the current contestations and challenges raised by the anti-gender movements. It is argued that the rise of the SOGI concept in international human rights system and the social constructionist definition of gender in the Istanbul Convention were among the defining moments in the development of the ‘gender ideology’ discourse and anti-gender movements in the 2010s. The paper concludes by arguing for an inclusive understanding of the term to keep transforming the gendered system, an obligation undertaken at the 1995 Beijing conference on women. On the occasion of the quarter-century anniversary, the Beijing+25 provides an opportunity to take stock of the developments and ensure that gender equality and human rights are not undermined by the ‘gender ideology’ discourse.

Iako je dostupnost pobačaja pitanje ljudskih prava, učestali su napadi na liberalne zakone o pobačaju koji počivaju na stajalištu da fetus ima pravo na život, premda to ne proizlazi iz međunarodnog prava. Posljednjih godina u Hrvatskoj regulacija pobačaja ponovno postaje aktualna politička i društvena tema, a uskoro se očekuje odluka Ustavnog suda povodom prijedloga za ocjenu ustavnosti Zakona o zdravstvenim mjerama za ostvarivanje prava na slobodno odlučivanje o rađanju djece (NN 18/78). S obzirom na aktualnost teme i nedostatak (međunarodno)pravne literature ovim se člankom želi pridonijeti informiranoj, znanstveno utemeljenoj raspravi o međunarodnopravnim obvezama država pri regulaciji pobačaja i implementaciji zakona u praksi. Članak analizira praksu Europskog suda za ljudska prava i Europske komisije za ljudska prava u odnosu na regulaciju pobačaja stavljajući tu praksu u kontekst globalnih standarda, posebice onih koji proizlaze iz prakse odbora uspostavljenih konvencijama za zaštitu ljudskih prava Ujedinjenih naroda. Analiziraju se slučajevi koji kritiziraju zakone o pobačaju ili njihovu implementaciju u praksi: oni koje su podnijeli partneri žena koje su pobacile te oni koje su podnijele žene. Pozornost se posvećuje sljedećim pitanjima: prepoznaju li Sud i Komisija pravo na reproduktivno samoodređenje i u kojoj mjeri te kako pristupaju procjeni balansiranja između različitih interesa i primjenjuju li doktrinu slobodnog polja procjene. Također se razmatra koliko je praksa Suda i Komisije usklađena s praksom tijela UN-a. Zaključno se sumiraju obveze koje državama članicama nameće Konvencija u vezi s regulacijom pobačaja.

This article discusses the dilemmas faced in my research on prostitution. After describing the projects I have been undertaking in New Zealand and Croatia, it discusses the methodological and ethical issues I have been facing and the relevance of the legal and socio-cultural environments. In particular, it looks at the problems in securing access to the field and recruiting participants, the relationships with the participants, and the risks faced by the participants and the researcher. Following this, it summarises the lessons learnt and contributions that feminist socio-legal research centred on human rights can make for sex work scholarship., feminists@law, Vol 6 No 2 (2017)

The paper discusses specific methodological and ethical hurdles of prostitution research, situating these issues withing the wider context of feminist scholarship and socio-legal studies.

The paper discusses human rights implications of different prostitution policies in Europe and uses the Croatian context to exemplify various human rights abuses suffered by sex workers. Before discussing different prostitutio regimes, different debates on the relationship between human rights and prostitution are discussed, as well as the human rights obligations for the state with respect to regulating prostitution and implementing prostitution policies.

Analiza prikazuje trenutačno stanje prava djece u Hrvatskoj, s posebnim osvrtom na ranjive skupine djece. Izvještaj se temelji na podatcima prikupljenim iz dokumenata različitih državnih tijela Republike Hrvatske, kao što su zakoni, pravilnici, strategije, protokoli, izvještaji i odluke ; podatcima iz hrvatskih i europskih statističkih baza i izvješća ; na znanstvenim nalazima relevantnih domaćih i stranih istraživanja, te na izvještajima nevladinih organizacija i udruga orijentiranih na promicanje dobrobiti djece. Ovi podatci su proučavani, analizirani i uspoređivani kako bi se donijela cjelovita slika stanja prava djece u Hrvatskoj, otkrile kritične točke i propusti, a sa ciljem davanja konstruktivnih prijedloga o mogućim načinima unapređenja strategija vezanih uz ostvarivanje dječjih prava i načina njihovog provođenja. Ova analiza povezana je s ciljevima nacrta nove Nacionalne strategije za prava djece u Republici Hrvatskoj od 2014. do 2020, koja se temelji na Strategiji Vijeća Europe o pravima djeteta (2012. – 2015.) a koja obuhvaća četiri strateška područja: (1) unapređenje sustava i osiguranje usluga prilagođenih djeci ; (2) eliminacija svih oblika nasilja nad djecom ; (3) osiguranje prava djece u ranjivom položaju ; (4) osiguranje aktivnog sudjelovanja djece.Na temelju iscrpne analize strategija i provedbe zacrtanih planova, rezultati ove studije pokazuju da se u Hrvatskoj u posljednjih nekoliko godina dogodio pozitivan pomak u području prava djece, i to na više razina: usvojeni su brojni zakoni, protokoli i strategije koje promiču dječja prava, pokrenute su inicijative, programi i projekti, od kojih dio već pokazuje konkretne rezultate, a ostvarena je i međunarodna suradnja.

Application of gender stereotypes and rape mythology in the criminal proceedings often leads to denial of justice for the victims/survivors of rape, and has serious harmful consequences as it gives them the full weight and authority of the law. Hence, it needs to be challenged, which has started to be recognised in the international human rights jurisprudence. In this paper I analyse how the European Court of Human Rights (the Court) has dealt with the issue. I start by identifying the most common gender stereotypes and rape myths and continue with the discussion of the Court’s role in challenging them, in the context of international human rights law and its own jurisprudence on stereotyping. I then analyse Court’s rape jurisprudence. I call on the Court to explicitly challenge the rape myths and gender stereotypes and recognise the link between them and gender discrimination, which the Court has yet failed to do.

Globally, marriage migration, regardless of motives, appears to be predominately female. Several studies have revealed that marriage migration invokes numerous anxieties, strategies and ambitions and has been seen as problematic and controversial (see Wray 2011). Past research has shown that migration can be an emancipatory experience and celebrated as a form of agency (Pessar & Mahler 2003 ; Hirsch 1999) as women’s marriage migration may be the most efficient and socially accepted means available to disadvantaged women to achieve a measure of social and economic mobility (Del Rosario 1994 ; Fan & Li 2002 ; Fan & Huang 1998). Conversely, marriage migration may be an experience of disempowerment (Hirsch 1999) because in-marrying wives in their new environments are often unfamiliar with local customs, family traditions and frequently experience language barriers. One of the main aims of this paper is to bring a gender-sensitive perspective to bear on aspects of Roma marriage and migration in intra- and transnational migration focussing on examples from Croatia. For clarification purposes, this paper draws distinctions between arranged marriages, forced marriages (that can be seen as a form of human trafficking) and sham marriages. In this grey zone with fluid boundaries, there is the additional dilemma of early child marriages and the implications of these arrangements in relation to violation of girls’ basic rights for freedom, growth, education and health. Correspondingly, this paper will consider state legislation with regard to these issues as well as immigration procedures in the Republic of Croatia. Some of the identified problems and challenges that women without residency or citizenship face will be discussed. This work draws on previous studies and reports for a demographic profile and a description of migration and marital patterns among Roma populations in Croatia. It features a case study elaborating the extent and motives for marriage migration as well as the determinants and social function of brideprice. More specifically, it attempts to examine the multiplicity of factors shaping Roma women’s experience as migrants i.e., how gender and other social categories (race, ethnicity, class, age, religion, etc.) intersect and whether migration has been an emancipatory or disempowering experience for Roma women. Further, this paper shows that female Roma migration cannot be understood without considering i) the local community’s context (degree of social inclusion – e.g., participation in educational economic, political spheres ; level of infrastructure ; patriarchy, gender roles and relations ; etc.) and ii) wider structural forces: socio-economic instability, racism, discrimination, etc. This work is an attempt to narrow the gap in the literature on contemporary lived experience of marriage in context of migration among Roma groups. Clearly, there is a need for further empirical studies on the intersection of marriage and migration from both a gender-sensitive and comparative intra-European perspective.

In this presentation my focus is on the legal obstacles to the access to justice for the victims/survivors of gender based violence. I look at how patriarchal socio-cultural norms are (re)produced in the laws and proceedings concerning sexual and domestic violence, drawing on the example of my own research into Croatian gender based violence laws and procedures, primary my research on the judicial practice in the cases of sexual violence (Radačić 2014(a), 2014(b)). After describing how gender bias is visible in the laws and proceedings, I state some recommendations, concerning both reforms of laws and practice as well as educational and awarness raising efforts.

Europski sud za ljudska prava, jedini međunarodni sud kojemu se pojedinici mogu izravno obratiti, najuspješniji je međunarodni mehanizam zaštite ljudskih prava. Presude Europskoga suda obvezuju države članice, pa praksa Suda utječe na zakonodavstvo i praksu europskih država. Sud također ima značajan utjecaj i na druge globalne i regionalne mehanizme zaštite ljudskih prava, pa time doprinosi razvoju međunarodnih standarda ljudskih prava. Ove karakteristike čine ga moćnom institucijom koja može značajno doprinijeti razvoju i zaštiti ljudskih prava žena. Potencijal Suda za zaštitu ljudskih prava žena, međutim, još nije u potpunosti iskorišten. Unatoč teškim i sustavnim kršenjima ženskih ljudskih prava diljem Europe, još je uvijek razmjerno malen broj presuda koje se odnose na ljudska prava žena, premda taj broj u posljednje vrijeme raste. Osim toga, i u takvim slučajevima, ženska su iskustva često marginalizirana ili krivo interpretirana. Ovo izlaganje prikazuje analizu presuda Suda koje se odnose na slučajeve kršenja ženskih ljudskih prava, što uključuje slučajeve rodno uvjetovanog nasilja, spolne diskriminacije i reproduktivnog samoodređenja. Analiza počiva na feminističkim teorijama različitosti, koje ukazuju na važnost spola/roda u diskursu ljudskih prava. Glavni argument izlaganja jest da bi primjena feminističke perspektive i metodologije, koja je osjetljiva na višestruku diskriminaciju žena, mogla osigurati učinkovitiju zaštitu ljudskih prava žena. Iako se rodno osjetljiva perspektiva sve više primjenjuje u praksi Suda, njegov pristup nije jednak u svim slučajevima kršenja ljudskih prava žena. Izlaganje će pokazati kako Sud pokazuju veću rodnu senzibilnost u pitanjima nasilja nad ženama nego što je slučaj sa spolnom diskriminacijom i reproduktivnim pravima, te će identificirati razloge takvoj praksi. Osim toga, izlaganje će ukazati na potencijale i zapreke za učinkovitu zaštitu ljudskih prava žena te predložiti metodološke i konceptualne izmjene u pristupu Suda.

Osim analize starih i novih zakonskih rješenja u području seksualnih delikata, knjiga prezentira rezulate istraživanja obuhvaća praksu četiri najveća županijska i općinska suda u Hrvatskoj (Zagreb, Split, Rijeka i Osijek) u području kaznenih djela protiv spolne slobode koja štite od nedobrovoljnih seksualnih radnji u recentnom četiri i pol godišnjem razdoblju (1. siječnja 2008. - 30. lipnja 2012.) Fokus je na silovanju. Analiza je usredotočena na interpretaciju definicije silovanja, način ispitivanja žrtve i izvođenje drugih dokaza koji se odnose na njezin seksualni ili privatan život, kao i ocjene njezine vjerodostojnosti i drugih dokaza, te politike kažnjavanja. Cilj je analize identificiranje mitova o silovanju i stereotipnih pretpostavki da žene žele seks neovisno o okolnostima, da su sklone lagati o seksualnim stvarima te da su same odgovorne za silovanje.

In this presentation, I explore the rape myths and gender stereotypes in the Croatian rape laws, as exemplified in the practice of the Zagreb County Court. I focus in particular on how the judges interpret the elements of rape and assess the credibility of the victim. In this respect, I examine how they define force, consent and resistance (elements of rape under Croatian law) and to what extent they inquire or allow inquiry into women’s sexual and private life, questioning how these interpretation in turn reflect and construct the dominant ideas about sexuality of women. I propose reforms in rape laws and practices which would allow for a more nuanced understanding of women’s (and men’s) sexualities, including adoption of a standard of affirmative (communicative) consent and stricter rules on sexual history, as well as changes in the culture and education of legal professionals.

Ovaj članak pruža kritičku analizu kaznenog djela silovanja u hrvatskom zakonodavstvu na primjeru slučajeva Županijskog suda u Zagrebu u recentnom četverogodišnjem periodu. U svjetlu feminističkih razmatranja o silovanju, analiza je usredotočena na pitanja defi nicije silovanja, (ne)odgovornosti za otklonjivu zabludu i postojanja rodnih stereotipa i mitova u silovanju u sudskim odlukama. Članak identificira probleme u hrvatskom zakonodavstvu i praksi te temeljem feminističkih istraživanja, a u skladu s međunarodnopravnim standardima zaštite ljudskih prava, predlaže određene promjene, uspoređujući ih s rješenjima novog Kaznenog zakona koji će stupiti na snagu 1. siječnja 2013. Predložene reforme odnose se na konceptualizaciju silovanja kao nedobrovoljnog seksualnog odnosa, uspostavu odgovornosti za skrivljenu zabludu te inkorporaciju tema ljudskih prava (žena), feminizma i nasilja nad ženama u kurikulume pravnih fakulteta, pravosudne i odvjetničke akademije.

The article examines the Court’s sex discrimination jurisprudence, referring to its divergence from the jurisprudence of the Court of Justice of the European Union. It points to inconsistencies in the Court’s jurisprudence and calls for a greater recognition of women’s disadvantage in the adjudication of sex discrimination claims.

This presentation introduces the project Explore and Act for Human Rights and explains the importance of the European Court of Human Rights and this project. It starts by briefly introducing the overall and specific goals of the project which is to further human rights through education by teaching the Court’s principles and case-law in secondary schools. It then discusses the importance of the Court as the most effective international mechanism of human rights protection, introducing some statistics on its work, describing the range of topics it has examined in its case-law and examining the impact of its judgments on changes of laws, policy and practice in member states. It then examine to what extent is the case-law known in general population and specifically in education sector, arguing that further efforts should be undertaken to introduce the Court to students and teachers. This leads to a discussion of the activities of the project: research, preparation of lesson plans and materials in respect of 10 landmark cases, development of the depository of learning materials, annual conferences. The paper concludes by evaluating the project.

Rad prikazuje rad Europskog suda za ljudska prava, izlažući statističke podatke o njegovoj praksi, osvrčući se na razna pitanja kojima se Sud bavio te pokazujući njegov utjecan na primjerima izmjene zakona i prakse u zemljama članicama, osobito Hrvatskoj

U monografiji autorice analiziraju stanje prava djece i žena u Hrvatskoj. Analiza pokriva prava preživljavanja, razvojna prava, zaštitna prava i prava sudjelovanja dječaka i djevojčica, te žena. Na gotovo tristo stranica analiza uključuje pregled stanja i očekivanja u odnosu na sadašnje mogućnosti i kapacitete, daje se pregled programskih strategija i zakona u zemlji, te njihove usklađenosti s nacionalnim prioritetima i međunarodnim standardima ljudskih prava. Metodologija analize uključuje pregled odabranih kvalitativnih i kvantitativnih istraživanja, kao i raznih zakona i dokumenata o djeci i ženama, te sintezu postojećih statističkih podataka. Temelji se na kvantitativnim i kvalitativnim podacima dostupnim iz nacionalnih statističkih podataka te znanstvenih i stručnih radova iz širokog opsega nacionalnih i međunarodnih izvora. Analizirajući preko 300 bibliografskih jedinca koje se navode na kraju analize, analizom su utvrđeni različiti problemi, gdje se pojavljuju, tko je njima najviše pogođen, koliko su rašireni, te koji mehanizmi odgovora na njih postoje, odnosno nedostaju. Neposredni, temeljni i strukturalni uzroci koji utječu na provedbu prava proučeni su onoliko koliko je to omogućila dostupnost podataka. Naglašeni su izazovi i preporuke s obzirom na definirane probleme te potrebe za novim istraživačkim studijama i evaluacijama. Prepoznate su i slabosti u mogućnostima koje uključuju manjak informacija, znanja ili vještina, motivacije ili financijskih, odnosno materijalnih izvora na temelju čega su formulirane preporuke za buduća istraživanja. Najveći dio ove analize posvećen je djeci i adolescentima i pokriva njihova prava preživljavanja, razvojna prava, zaštitna prava te prava sudjelovanja, kao i odgovarajući zakonodavni i pravni okvir pri čemu se posebno stavlja naglasak uz opis istraživanja zdravlja djece i adolescenata na obiteljsko i društveno okruženje djece, životne uvjete i ulogu obitelji u podizanju i odgoju djece. Zatim pregled analize dokumenata i istraživanja povezanih s predškolskim, osnovnoškolskim i srednjoškolskim obrazovanjem, kvalitetom obrazovanja, ostvarenim znanjem, napuštanjem školovanja, te slobodnim vremenom djece. Dio analize odnosi se na zaštitna prava te istražuje djecu i adolescente koji su posebno ranjivi, poput djece bez roditeljske skrbi, djece u ustanovama ili udomiteljskim obiteljima i djece čije obitelji žive u teškim okolnostima, djece u jednoroditeljskim obiteljima i mnogobrojim obiteljima, djece roditelja koji služe kaznu zatvora, djece tijekom sudskog postupka u slučajevima konfliktnih razvoda. Istražuje se nasilje nad djecom, zlostavljanje djece, trgovina djecom te devijantna i delinkventna ponašanja, uporaba/zlouporaba sredstava ovisnosti, samoubojstvo i samoozljeđivanje. Poseban se dio bavi djecom s teškoćama u razvoju i romskom djecom. Treći dio analize odnosi se na žene i pokriva pitanja vezana uz zdravlje žena, nasilje nad ženama i sudjelovanje žena. Četvrti dio usmjeren je na prioritetne probleme i buduća djelovanja što uključuje preporuke za unapređenje cjelokupne dobrobiti i djece i žena, posebno onih koji su u nepovoljnijem položaju i marginalizirani.

Rad kritički analizira hrvatsko kazneno zakonodavstvo na primjeru pravomoćno okončanih slučajeva Županijskog suda u Zagrebu u kojima je optužnica podignuta nakon 1.1. 2008. POsebna se pažnja posvećuje interpretaciji sile i prijetnje te razmatranju otpora, (ne)odgovornosti za zabludu te prisutnosti mitova i stereotipa, a u svjetlu feminističkih istraživanja i međunarodnih standarda zaštite ljudskih prava.

The issue of religious symbols in the educational institutions has given rise to widespread debate on the scope of freedom of religion and the relationship between the state and religion in various countries around the world. Two types of cases have been litigated before the European Court of Human Rights: those concerning the wearing of ‘the Islamic headscarf’ in schools and universities by pupils/students and teachers, and those concerning the presence of crucifix in the wall of the school classroom. These cases have raised the issue of balancing between different rights of different groups and state interests and the role of human rights institutions in monitoring the state’s balancing of these rights and interests. Following rights are engaged in the debate on religious symbols in educational institutions: freedom of religion of individual pupils, students and teachers– including the right to believe and right not to believe ; rights of parents to educate their children according to their philosophical and religious beliefs ; and state’s interests in promoting certain values which they may see as indispensable for its public order. These rights and interests may all be in conflict. Different pupils and students may have different belief systems, as may the parents so the question becomes how to safeguard the rights of all equally. In addition, rights of parents and their children may be in conflict, which may be further complicated by the fact that children cannot coherently express their views in view of their age. Finally, the state may have different interests – from promoting tolerance and pluralism, gender equality to secularism and/or neutrality, national identity and security and these interests/values might be in conflict. In this article, I shall analyse the Court’s jurisprudence on religious symbols in educational institutions, namely cases concerning wearing of Islamic headscarf in Turkey, France and Switzerland and a case concerning presence of the crucifix in the schools in Italy. After briefly summarising the cases concerning ‘Islamic headscarf’, I shall focus in particular on the Court’s interpretation of the principles of neutrality/secularism and of gender equality which the relevant governments claimed were served by prohibitions of wearing the Islamic headscarf imposed on different groups of people in different context. I shall criticise the Court’s deference to the state and its understanding of the principles as too simplistic and paternalistic. I shall then proceed to analysing the case concerning the crucifix, criticising again the Court’s approach of deferring to the state’s understanding of the symbol, its impact and compatibility with the requirements of the principles of neutrality and pluralism in education. In conclusion, acknowledging that it is not the Court’s role to a particular form of relationship between the state and the church, I shall argue that it should still supervise how states respect rights of a concrete individual, since religious liberty is not guaranteed to promote certain creeds or to reap the positive consequences of religion as such for society or the state, but because of the concern for the concrete individuals who (do not) believe and the categorical respect for their personalities. The concern for individual would require the state to respect the following requirements: be autonomous from the religion and vice versa, respect individual religious and plurality. If such an approach had been applied, the applicants might have been successful.

The authors of this monograph analyse the rights of children and women in Croatia. This situation analysis covers the survival, developmental, protection and participation rights of girls and boys, as well as women. Over 300 pages in length, this analysis includes a review of the situation and expectations in view of current possibilities and capacities as well as a review of program strategies and laws in the country and their alignment with national priorities and international standards of human rights. The methodology of this analysis includes a review of selected qualitative and quantitative research, various laws and documents on children and women as well as a synthesis of existing statistical data. It is based on quantitative and qualitative data available from national statistical data and scientific research papers from a wide range of national and international sources. Following the analysis of over 300 references that are listed in the Bibliography section, this analysis identifies several problems, where they occur, who is most affected by them, how widespread they are, and which mechanisms exist and which are missing in response to these problems. The immediate, underlying and structural causes that affect implementation of rights were studied insofar as data was available. Challenges and recommendations in light of the defined problems as well as the need for new research studies and evaluations were highlighted. Weaknesses were also identified and these include a lack of information, knowledge or skills, motivation or financial, that is, material resources upon which recommendations for future research were formulated. Most of this analysis is devoted to children and adolescents and accordingly covers their survival, developmental, protection and participation rights as well as appropriate legislative and regulatory frameworks. In the first section of this monograph the national context is covered, which is followed by a section on children that focuses on studies related to the health of children and adolescents, children’s family and social environment, living conditions and the role of the family in child-rearing. Following is a review of the current situation and policy framework as well as research related to pre-school, primary and secondary education, quality of education, learning achievement, dropout rates and children’s leisure time. The third part of the analysis relates to protection rights and draws attention to children and adolescents that are particularly vulnerable. These include children without parental care such as children in institutional care or foster families, children whose families live in difficult circumstances such as children in single-parent households and large families, children of imprisoned parents, and children involved in disputed divorces. This chapter also explores violence against children such as child abuse and neglect and child trafficking. It also covers children and adolescents at risk by examining deviant and delinquent behaviours, substance use/abuse, suicide and self-mutilation. The final part of this section addresses participation rights that specifically investigate the participation of children and youth, the promotion of children’s participation rights and active NGOs as well as children and the media. A special section deals with children with disabilities and Roma children. The third section of this analysis is related to women and covers issues related to women's health, violence against women, women, work and the family and women's participation. The fourth section focuses on priority issues and future actions, which includes recommendations for improving the overall well-being of both children and women, particularly those who are disadvantaged and marginalised.

Rad analizira anti-diskriminacijske standarde Europskog suda za ljudska prava. Prvo se navode odrebe o zabrani diskriminacije, potom se opisuju koncept i test diskriminacije, kao i metodologija Suda, nakon čega se anlizira praksa u području diskriminacije temeljem rasne i etničke pripadnost, spola, spolne orijentacije i invaliditeta, te konačno hrvatski slučajevi.

Doktrina polja slobodne procjene jedna je od najkontoroverznijih kreacija Europskog suda za ljudska prava, koja po mišljenju mnogih znanstvenika ometa razvoj univerzalnih standarda ljudskih prava. Sud je najčešće koristi kako bi se pozvao na mišljenje državnih vlasti o tome što zaštita konvencijskih prava zahtijeva, kada o tome ne postoji konsenzus, ili kada se vlasti pozivaju na zaštitu morala kao razlog za miješanje u konvencijska prava. U ovom se članku kritizira takvu upotrebu doktrine, kroz analizu interpretacije konsenzusa i morala u praksi Suda. Autorica tvrdi da pozivanje na mišljenje države u slučajevima kad ne postoji zajednički pristup među državama članicama, ili kad se relevanto pitanje tiče (seksualnog) “morala”, predstavlja zapreku za učinkovitu zaštitu prava ranjivih skupina, jer je uvjetuje prihvaćanjem od strane većine država, odnosno od strane većine unutar države. Autorica smatra da Sud ne bi trebao davati državama polje slobodne procjene da odluče o tome koje standarde Konvencija nameće, već samo kako implementirati te standarde. Kod određivanja standarda, Sud bi se trebao voditi vrijednostima ravnopravnosti, autonomije i dostojanstva, a ne konsenzusom, što prepostavlja traganje i osporavanje isključenosti i nepovoljnosti., The doctrine of the margin of appreciation is one of the most controversial developments of the European Court of Human Rights, which, in view of many scholars, impedes the development of universal standards of human rights. The Court has most often used it to defer to the state’s judgment on what the protection of Convention rights requires if there is no consensus on this issue, or if the government invokes the protection of morality as the reason for interference with Convention rights. The author criticises such a use of the doctrine examining the ways consensus and morals have been interpreted in the case-law. The author argues that deference to the state’s judgment in case there is a lack of a common approach among the member states on the relevant issue, or when the issue concerning the (sexual) ‘morality’, presents an obstacle for the effective protection of the rights of vulnerable groups, due to the fact that it conditions their protection with the acceptance by the majority of the states or the majority within the state. It is maintained that the Court should never allow to the states a margin of appreciation to decide what standards the Convention imposes except in cases when the states decide on implementation of these standards. In determining the standard, the Court should be guided by the values of autonomy, equality and human dignity, rather than by the issue of consensus, which presupposes searching for and challenging the exclusion and disadvantage of vulnerable groups., Die Ermessensdoktrin zählt zu den meist bestrittenen Entwicklungen des Europäischen Gerichtshofs für Menschenrechte. Nach Ansicht einiger Autoren, beeinträchtigt dies auch die Entwicklung der allgemeinen Normen der Menschenrechte. Diese Doktrin wird vom Gerichtshof meistens dann angewendet, wenn kein Konsens darüber besteht, was der Schutz der Konventionsrechte benötigt, oder wenn die Regierung als Grund des Eingriffs in die Konventionsrechte den Moralschutz geltend macht. In der vorliegenden Arbeit übt die Autorin Kritik über eine solche Anwendung der genannten Doktrin, indem sie die Auslegung von Konsens und Moral in der Rechtsprechung ausarbeitet. Wie sie behauptet, im Falle dass kein Konsens erreicht wird, und keine gemeinsame Einstellung der Mitgliedstaaten besteht, oder wenn es um (sexuelle) Moral geht, sei das Ermessen der Mitgliedstaaten ein Hindernis für den effizienten Schutz der Rechte von schutzbedürftigen Personengruppen, weil dafür entweder eine Mehrheit von Staaten, oder eine Mehrheit innerhalb des jeweiligen Mitgliedstaates erforderlich ist. Aus diesem Grunde sollte es der Gerichtshof nicht den Mitgliedstaaten überlassen, über die von der Konvention verhängten Normen Entscheidungen zu treffen, mit der Ausnahme der Implementierung dieser Normen. Darüber hinaus sollte der Gerichtshof bei der Feststellung dieser Normen von Werten wie Autonomie, Gleichheit und menschliche Würde, statt von Konsens geleitet werden, weil dieser Fragen der Ausschließung und Benachteiligung schutzbedürftiger Personengruppen mit sich bringt., La dottrina relativa al concetto del libero apprezzamento rappresenta una delle creazioni più controverse della Corte europea dei diritti dell'uomo, la quale secondo l'opinione di numerosi studiosi ostacola lo sviluppo di standards universali dei diritti dell'uomo. Il più frequente uso che ne fa la Corte è volto a richiamare i pareri delle autorità statali sul contenuto della tutela dei diritti convenzionali, laddove manchi un consenso oppure qualora le autorità invochino la protezione di valori morali al fine di interferire nei diritti convenzionali. Nel presente lavoro, mediante un'analisi dell'interpretazione del consenso e della morale nella giurisprudenza della Corte, viene criticato siffatto uso della dottrina. L'autrice sostiene come il richiamo al parere dello Stato, nei casi in cui non esista un approccio comune agli Stati membri, oppure quando la questione rilevante concerne la «morale» (sessuale), rappresenti un impedimento ai fini di un'efficace tutela dei diritti dei gruppi vulnerabili; giacché la stessa viene condizionata dal suo accoglimento da parte della maggioranza degli Stati ovvero da parte della maggioranza all'interno dello Stato. L'autrice ritiene che la Corte non dovrebbe dare agli stati margini di libero apprezzamento per stabilire quali standards siano imposti dalla Convenzione, bensì permettere di stabilire unicamente le modalità di recepimento di tali standards. Nel determinare gli standards, la Corte dovrebbe seguire i valori dell'eguaglianza, dell'autonomia e della dignità, anziché del consenso, il che presuppone la ricerca e la resistenza all’emarginazione ed all’inadeguatezza.

Rad opisuje razvoj feminističkih pravnih teorija, propitujući uključivost pojedinih perspektiva kao i stanje feminističkih perspektiva u pravu danas u svijetu i Hrvatskoj. Rad počinje opisom zajedničkih karakterističke pravnog feminizma te se potom obrazlažu doprinose i problemi pojedinih perspektiva - liberalni, kulturalni, radikalni feminizam, feminizam "obojenih", lezbijski feminizam, postkolonijalni feminzam, postmoderni feminizam. Na kraju se propituje stanje danas te se posebice osvrće na hrvatsku pravnu znanot i praksu.

Women’s experiences of human rights abuse have long been marginalised in international human rights law. The main human rights concepts – personhood, equality and freedom, have been defined on the basis of the experiences of men, and the main framework of international law – the public/private divide, has been defined in a gendered (masculine) manner. Thus, the ideal of universality of human rights has not yet been achieved. This paper proposes approach to interpreting human rights, which aims to remedy the problem of under-inclusiveness. The inclusive approach, based on feminist theories of difference, requires that attention is paid to sex/gender difference, as it intersects with other identity characteristics, and that efforts are made at challenging disadvantage attached to difference. The approach demands that the ‘woman question’ be asked in conceptualising and interpreting human rights. Asking this question would result in re-conceptualisation of the subject, equality and freedom in a manner that recognises gender (and other) difference. Further, the boundaries of the public/private divide would be shifted, so that gender-based violence, reproductive self-determination and women’s economic disadvantage would firmly be placed on the human rights agenda.

The article analyses the jurisprudence of the European Court of Human Rights as it relates to rape. In particular, the article looks at which rights have been found violated on account of rape, how rape has been defined in the Court's jurisprudence, and what under the Convention standards constitute effective protection against rape. It is argued that, while the Court has in many aspects contributed to a more effective protection of women from rape, by defining rape in a gender-sensitive manner and by clarifying what constitutes effective prosecution, the challange remains to overcome the public/private divide in assessing the level of severity of rape, and to conceptualise rape as a form of gender-based discrimination.

The thesis analyses the main interpretative principles of the European Court of Human Rights and its jurisprudence in the areas of gender equality, violence against women, and reproductive selfdetermination. The argument of this thesis is that the employment of a feminist theoretical perspective and methodology that is sensitive to intersectionality of discrimination could secure more effective protection of women's rughts and thus enhance the inclusiveness of the Court's jurisprudence. The thesis, hence, develops an inclusive feminist approach to intepreting international human rights law, on the basis of which specific criteria are developed for adjudicating cases concerning women's rights, and the changes to the Court's conceptual and methodological approach proposed.