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Management, brood nest structure and factors associated with varroa mites infestation were studied in 60 apiaries of Africanized honey bees in the northwest region of the Central Valley of Costa Rica. Apiaries were monitored two times. The first monitoring was taken forward between May and November 2019 (rainy season) and the second one between February and March 2020 (dry season). Information about the beekeepers, apiaries and management was collected through a survey. Amount of open and capped brood, honey and pollen were registered. The infestation rate of varroa was measured using standard laboratory methods. A determination of multi-residue pesticides in bee bread was made through GC-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS techniques. According to the results, most of the beekeepers produce honey (96.7%), participate in training activities (82.2%), and change the bee queens annually (70.0%). The first monitoring was characterized by a lower amount of capped brood and honey reserves than the second one. Varroa mites infestation was significantly higher in the first monitoring (6.0 ± 0.4) in comparison with the second one (3.0 ± 0.3) (U Mann-Whitney p < 0.001). The maximum value for the first monitoring exceeds 40.0%, while this value was close to 25.0% in the second monitoring. Mite infestation had direct correlations with the distance of near apiaries and the presence of perforated capping brood, while it had inverse correlations with the nuclei formation and training activities. Furthermore, twenty-three bee bread samples presented one to five pesticide residues, being the most frequent antifungal agrochemicals.

Resumen Introducción. La Nosemosis es una enfermedad de las abejas melíferas, que se encuentra diseminada por todo el mundo y ocasiona pérdidas económicas. Es causada por 2 especies de hongos, Nosemaapis y Nosemaceranae. Objetivo. Se determinó la cantidad de esporas de Nosemaspp. en muestras grupales e individuales de abejas, y se relacionaron con la precipitación y humedad. Materiales y métodos. El estudio se realizó de julio a noviembre 2017, en 10 colmenas de abejas africanizadas en Atenas, Alajuela. De cada colmena, se colectaron 100 abejas, para examinarlas en el laboratorio de Patología Apícola-CINAT. Para el análisis grupal, se cortaron los abdómenes de 30 abejas y se maceraron con 30 ml de agua destilada. La muestra se revisó en el microscopio a 40x y se cuantificaron las esporas de Nosemaspp. mediante el hemocitómetro. Para el examen individual, se utilizó la misma técnica. La precipitación y humedad relativa durante el estudio, se relacionaron con el número de esporas. Resultados y conclusión. Se detectó el microsporidio Nosemaspp. en todas las colmenas analizadas. En julio, se cuantificó el mayor número de esporas, con un promedio de 20 360 000 ± 1 586 957 en el análisis grupal y 12 749 733 ± 867 232 en el individual. En los meses siguientes se observó un descenso en el conteo de esporas en ambos métodos, hasta contabilizar la menor cantidad en noviembre, con un promedio de 4 375 000 ± 874 132 y 2 087 708 ± 398 895 en el examen grupal e individual, respectivamente. Al relacionar la precipitación y humedad con la cantidad de esporas, setiembre presentó la mayor cantidad de lluvia y un alto porcentaje de humedad, sin embargo, no correspondió con el mayor nivel de Nosemosis, el cual se registró en julio. Mientras que noviembre fue el menos lluvioso y húmedo, y mostró la menor cantidad de esporas. Abstract Introduction. Nosemosis is the most wide spread of adult honeybee diseases that cause significant economic losses worlwide. Honeybees are parasitized by 2 fungus species, Nosemaapis and Nosemaceranae. Objective. The amount of spores of Nosema spp. in group and individual samples of adult bees was related with precipitation and relative humidity conditions.Materials and methods.This study was conducted from July to November 2017, in 10 africanized honeybees colonies in Atenas, Alajuela. A 100 foragers bees were collected per colony to examine them at the Bee Pathology Labof CINAT. For the group analysis, the abdomens of thirty adult bees were cut and macerated together in 30 ml of distilled water. Nosema spp. Spores were identified using a light microscopy at 40x magnification and counted with the hemocytometer. For the individual analysis, the same method was used. Precipitation and relative humidity conditions during the study period were related with the amount of Nosema spp. spores. Results and conclusion. The microsporidium Nosema spp. Was found in all colonies. In July, the highest number of Nosema spores were quantified, with anaverage of 20 360 000 ± 1 586 957 per bee in groupanalysis and 12 749 733 ± 867 232 in individual analysis. In thefollowingmonths a decrease in the number of spores was observed and the lowest amount of spores was recorded in November, with anaverage of 4 375 000 ± 874 132 and 2 087 708 ± 398 895 ofspores in group and individual exam, respectively. When relating the conditions of precipitation and humidity with the amount of spores, September presented the highest amount of rain and a high percentage of humidity, nevertheless, it did not correspond to the highest infection level of Nosema spp., which occurred in July. Meanwhile, November was the leastrainy and humid month and in turn presented the least amount of spores.

Drug Outreach, Promoting Awareness (DOPA) is an undergraduate outreach program for local high school students designed to convey the neurobiological basis, risks, and addictive potential of commonly abused drugs. Here we describe DOPA and evaluate the program, including its impact on high school student attitudes about drug harm risk and addiction. Undergraduate neuroscience students versed in the neurobiology, physiology, and policy of drugs are trained in active learning methods, enabling them to create engaging and interactive classroom‐based educational materials. Survey results showed that participation in DOPA increased high school student perceptions of the addictive potential and harm risk of drugs, which studies have shown to be inversely correlated with drug‐taking. High school students also responded positively to the interactive nature of the program. These findings demonstrate how extensively trained undergraduates who are close peers to high school students can effectively lead science outreach initiatives and shift adolescent attitudes about drugs., Lay abstract: Here we describe a novel high school drug outreach program led by undergraduate neuroscience students. We investigated how the program impacted high school student attitudes about the harm risks and addictive potential of commonly used drugs of abuse. The program was valued highly by the undergraduates, and surveys showed increased awareness of the health risks of several drugs among high school students. The findings demonstrate how using an interactive, peer‐led approach to drug outreach can positively impact adolescents.

El primer reporte sobre la presencia del Pequeño Escarabajo de la Colmena (PEC), Aethina tumida, en Costa Rica, se realizó el 25 de agosto 2015, en La Cruz, Guanacaste; lo cual aumenta el riesgo de dispersión a otras zonas apícolas del país. Por tanto, para este estudio, se realizó un muestreo de mayo a octubre del 2019. Se analizó 305 colmenas, distribuidas en 61 apiarios, ubicados en San Ramón, Alajuela. Adicionalmente, se examinó muestras de escarabajos adultos provenientes de Ulloa, Heredia y de Potrerillos de Liberia, Guanacaste. En cada apiario se analizó, aleatoriamente, cinco colmenas. Se revisó la tapa, los marcos, las cajas y el piso, con el fin de identificar la presencia de huevos, larvas y/o adultos del escarabajo. También, para reconocer algún signo relacionado, como galerías en los panales, apariencia húmeda de las abejas, entre otros. Las muestras de escarabajos adultos se analizaron en el laboratorio de Patología Apícola del CINAT-UNA. Las 305 colmenas evaluadas, en San Ramón de Alajuela, resultaron negativas para el Pequeño Escarabajo. Por otra parte, se confirmó la presencia de A. tumida en una colonia establecida en una casa de habitación en Ulloa, Heredia; también, en un apiario ubicado en Potrerillos de Liberia, el cual se encuentra aproximadamente a 25 km del foco inicial en La Cruz, Guanacaste. Con base en lo expuesto, se puede indicar la presencia de A. tumida en colmenas de abejas africanizadas en diferentes zonas de Costa Rica, con una distribución limitada. Al considerar que el escarabajo adulto puede volar y desplazarse, junto a enjambres silvestres; además, la trashumancia de colmenas por parte del apicultor, se debe mantener una revisión periódica de los apiarios, dado que las condiciones actuales de ausencia, en la mayoría de colmenas analizadas en este estudio, pueden cambiar. The first report of Small Hive Beetles (SHB), Aethina tumida, in Costa Rica was made on August 25, 2015, in La Cruz, Guanacaste, which increased the risk of dispersal to other beekeeping areas in the country. Therefore, in this study 305 colonies belonging to 61 apiaries, located in San Ramón, Alajuela, Costa Rica, were sampled from May to October 2019. In addition, adult beetle samples were analyzed from Ulloa, Heredia and Potrerillos, Liberia, Guanacaste. Five colonies were randomly selected in every apiary. Broods, boxes, combs, and bottom boards were checked for beetle eggs, larvae and/or adults, and for any related signs such as galleries in the combs, and wet appearance of bees, among others. Adult beetles were analyzed at the Bee Pathology Lab of the Tropical Beekeeping Research Center (CINAT-UNA). The 305 colonies evaluated in San Ramón tested negative for SHBs. On the other hand, the presence of A. tumida was confirmed in a wild colony in a house located in Ulloa, Heredia and in an apiary in Potrerillos, Liberia, which is approximately 25 km from the initial beetle focus in La Cruz, Guanacaste. Based on the above, the presence of A. tumida can be confirmed in Africanized honey bee colonies in different beekeeping areas of Costa Rica, with a limited distribution. Given that adult SHB can fly and move with wild swarms and the transhumance of colonies by beekeepers, apiaries must be periodically checked because the current absence in most of the colonies analyzed in the present study can change. Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica Centro de Investigaciones Apícolas Tropicales

Desde el inicio de la pandemia en 2020 con el aumento de casos de neumonía multilobar por enfermedad por coronavirus COVID-19, se han reportado con más frecuencia casos de neumotórax en la literatura mundial, pero a la fecha no se ha reportado ninguno de un paciente convaleciente en casa por la infección, que debute con neumotórax a tensión en urgencias. Se trata de un paciente de 48 años, que supera la infección por COVID-19 y es dado de alta, quedando con secuelas estructurales y funcionales, la más importante, la dependencia al oxígeno a bajo flujo. Asiste al servicio de urgencias con disnea progresiva y se diagnostica neumotórax a tensión, requiriendo toracostomía cerrada, reintervención por nuevo neumotórax intrahospitalario y es dado de alta 18 días después. En conclusión, la enfermedad por coronavirus tiene una amplia gama de presentaciones y en nuestro portafolio de diagnósticos diferenciales en el servicio de urgencias, debemos añadir esta causa de disnea en pacientes con infecciones activas y convalecientes de la enfermedad, cuyo manejo es estrictamente quirúrgico.

Nuestro propósito en este artículo es analizar desde un punto de vista epistemológico el debate científico sobre el niño “salvaje” de Aveyron que se inicia en la Ilustración tardía, en el ámbito del método y prácticas médico-pedagógicas, y que se extiende a mediados del siglo XX en el campo de las ciencias sociales. Consideramos que la metodología de investigación científica y los tratamientos aplicados para educar y transformar al niño “salvaje”, a través del disciplinamiento de sus sentidos, la enseñanza del lenguaje y la adopción de costumbres civilizadas lo convierten no solo en un “caso” u “objeto” de investigación científica, sino también en un ser “anormal”, expuesto al encierro, la experimentación y la degradación física. Cuestionamos, en esta ocasión, el dispositivo denominado “máquina antropológica” que articula la antinomia epistemológica naturaleza y cultura, que constituye ontológicamente el estatus inferior del niño “salvaje” como “criatura”. A través de la postulación de la teoría filosófica de la infancia de G. Agamben como alternativa crítica, desarrollamos los conceptos de “silencio”, “resistencia” e “irrupción epistemológica” para abordar las cuestiones ontológicas y epistémicas que conciernen a Víctor de Aveyron desde una nueva perspectiva filosófica.

Geothermal resources (e.g. hot springs) are found with the help of field techniques, such as geological, geochemistry and geophysical. These techniques in some occasions are difficult to apply because of the limit access to the research area, rising operational costs and constrained spatially the exploration areas. The thermal infrared (TIR) remote sensing is an important tool for the exploration of geothermal resources, due to the low cost and high efficiency in the study of large geographic areas. The aim of this study is to use thermal imagery of satellite remote sensing and combined with geological-geophysical data, for spatial determination of exploratory prospects of hot springs in the geothermal region of Paipa, Boyacá. The images used in this study are from satellites Landsat-7 ETM+, Landsat-8 OLI/TIRS, MODIS, ALOS-PALSAR and Pléiades. Also, field data is used, such as soil temperature, surface temperature, air temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure and thermal imagery of surface geothermal manifestations. The Landsat thermal bands were radiometrically calibrated, then atmospherically and surface emissivity corrected, applying single channel and split window algorithms, for Landsat-7 ETM+ and Landsat-8 TIRS, respectively. The field data helped to correct the thermal bands. And the soil temperature data are used to create a subsurface temperature map at 1-meter depth. Once primary and secondary data is had, in a geographic information system (GIS) is implemented an unweighted spatial model, which use four input indicators (satellite temperature index, soil temperature index, structural lineaments index and iso-resistivity index) to determine the areas with higher probability to find geothermal fluids. Six prospects are highlighted for hydrothermal fluid extraction, in which two of them are already known. Results allow to concluded that thermal remote sensing are useful to map geothermal anomalies in the Paipa region, and by using these anomalies plus geological-geophysical information is possible to determine exact exploration areas.

Puck Collect Robot Challenge es un concurso que consiste en que dos robots autónomos recolecten discos de un color (rojo para uno, azul para el otro) y los trasladen a una base ubicada en una esquina del campo, que es de 250 x 250 cm del mismo color asignado. El que traiga más discos a la base ganará; o en el caso de llevar el mismo número, el que lo haga más rápido. En este artículo se presenta la implementación de un robot autónomo en la que se aplica control difuso y conceptos de cinemática, para lograr enrutar el robot hacia el disco y posteriormente hacia la base.

Lack of resources and exposure to neuroscience in K-12 education has resulted in a limited number of K-12 students pursuing higher education in the field. Meanwhile, the rapid expansion of the field of neuroscience has encouraged many higher educational institutes to offer neuroscience majors. This has opened up the opportunity to engage faculty, as well as graduate and undergraduate students in bringing the most needed knowledge and awareness about neuroscience into K-12 classrooms. However, undergraduate neuroscience curricula have limited formal opportunities to engage in outreach, and few existing programs have assessments to determine their effectiveness. To address these needs, we developed quantitative assessment tools that complement an existing neuroscience outreach program-Project Brainstorm-at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). 29 UCLA undergraduates enrolled in the 2016 and 2017 programs participated in this study, along with 298 K-12 students from local schools across the Los Angeles area. In undergraduate students, we assessed (a) improvement in students' teaching/communication abilities across the course of the outreach program, and (b) confidence in explaining neuroscience topics and interest in pursuing teaching career. In K-12 students, we evaluated (a) knowledge gain in neuroscience topics and (b) interest in pursuing higher education. Overall, Project Brainstorm showed significant improvement in all the above-mentioned categories. The assessment tools and data presented here provide a data-driven approach for optimizing neuroscience outreach programs and can easily be adapted to other outreach programs within neuroscience and in other STEM fields.

Se estudió la prevalencia del microsporidio Nosema spp. en un apiario de 10 colmenas de abejas africanizadas en Atenas-Alajuela, Costa Rica, durante julio a noviembre 2017. Además, se comparó el número de esporas y el nivel de infección en muestras grupales e individuales de abejas adultas provenientes de una misma colmena. Se muestreó el apiario con un intervalo de 30 días. De cada colmena se colectaron aproximadamente 100 abejas adultas de la piquera, de las cuales 30 se examinaron de manera grupal y 30 individualmente en el Laboratorio de Patología Apícola-CINAT. Para determinar las esporas de Nosema spp. las abejas se analizaron mediante el método de Cantwell. Para el análisis grupal, se tomaron 30 abejas y se procedió a cortar los abdómenes, los cuales se maceraron en un mortero, agregando 30 ml de agua destilada. En el examen individual, se utilizó la misma técnica y se analizó cada abeja por separado. La muestra se revisó en el microscopio a un aumento de 40x, se procedió a identificar y determinar el número de esporas mediante el hemocitómetro y a establecer el nivel de infección de cada colmena. Se determinó la presencia de Nosema spp. en todas las colmenas del apiario, pero con diferentes niveles de infección, variando desde leve hasta fuerte, tanto en el análisis grupal como en el individual. En julio se cuantificó el mayor número de esporas, con un promedio de 20,360,000 ± 1,586,957 por abeja en el examen grupal y 12,749,733 ± 867,232 por abeja en el individual. En los meses siguientes se observó un descenso considerable en el número de esporas, hasta contabilizar la menor cantidad en noviembre, con un promedio de 4,375,000 ± 874,132 y 2,087,708 ± 398,895 para los análisis grupal e individual, respectivamente. Al comparar el conteo de esporas y el nivel de infección de Nosema spp. en muestras grupales e individuales, se obtuvieron resultados similares. Además, al correlacionar la cantidad de esporas se estableció una alta proximidad en los valores, mostrando que mediante ambos métodos se obtiene un resultado semejante en el nivel de infección de la misma colmena. The prevalence of the microsporidium Nosema spp. was studied during the rainy months from July to November 2017 in 10 Africanized honeybees colonies in Atenas-Alajuela, Costa Rica. In addition, the number of spores and the infection level were compared in group and individual samples of adult bees from the same colony. The apiary was sampled once a month. Approximately 100 forager bees per colony were collected, of which 30 were examined for Nosema spp. in group analysis and 30 individually at the Bee Pathology Lab-CINAT. According to the Cantwell method, the abdomens of 30 adult bees were cut and macerated together with 30 ml of distilled water for the group test. For the individual analysis, the same method was used, but each bee was examined separately. Nosema spores were identified under the cover slip using a light microscopy at 40x magnification and were counted with a hemocytometer. The infection level was determined for every colony. The microsporidium Nosema spp. were found in all apiary colonies at different levels, ranging from low to severe infection in both group and individual exams. In July, the highest number of Nosema spores were quantified, with an average of 20,360,000 ± 1,586,957 per bee in the group analysis, and 12,749,733 ± 867,232 per bee in the individual analysis. In the following months, a considerable decrease in the number of spores was observed, and the lowest amount was recorded in November, with an average of 4,375,000 ± 874,132 and 2,087,708 ± 398,895 spores per bee in the group and individual exam, respectively. When comparing the spore count and the infection level of Nosema spp. in group and individual samples, similar results were obtained. Furthermore, by correlating the number of spores, high proximity in the values was found, showing that, by both methods, a similar result is obtained concerning the infection level of the same colony. A prevalência do microsporídio Nosema spp. foi estudado durante os meses de julho a novembro de 2017, em 10 colmeia de abelhas africanizadas em Atenas-Alajuela, Costa Rica. Além disso, o número de esporos e o nível de infecção foram comparados em grupos e amostras individuais de abelhas adultas da mesma colmeia. Realizaram-se amostragens do apiário com um intervalo de 30 dias. Em cada colmeia, foram coletadas aproximadamente 100 abelhas adultas, das quais 30 foram examinadas em análise de grupo e 30 individualmente, no Laboratório de Patologia Apícola-CINAT. Para determinar os esporos de Nosema spp. as abelhas foram analisadas pelo método de Cantwell. Para a análise do grupo, foram retiradas 30 abelhas cujos abdomens foram cortados e macerados, acrescentando-se 30 ml de água destilada. Para a análise individual, o mesmo método foi usado, mas cada abelha foi examinada separadamente. A amostra foi analisada ao microscópio com aumento de 40x. O número de esporos foi identificado e determinado com o hemocitômetro e o nível de infecção em cada colmeia foi estabelecido. O microsporídio Nosema spp. foi encontrado em todas as colmeias do apiário, em diferentes níveis de infeccção, variando de leve a forte, tanto nas análises grupais como nas individuais. Em julho, foi quantificado o maior número de esporos, com uma média de 20.360.000 ± 1.586.957 por abelha na análise de grupo e 12.749.733 ± 867.232 por abelha, no individual. Nos meses seguintes, observou-se uma diminuição considerável no número de esporos, sendo a menor quantidade registrada em novembro, com uma média de 4.375.000 ± 874.132 e 2.087.708 ± 398.895 esporos por abelha para análises grupais e individuais, respectivamente. Ao comparar a contagem de esporos e o nível de infecção de Nosema spp. em grupos e amostras individuais, resultados semelhantes foram obtidos. Além disso, ao correlacionar o número de esporos, encontrou-se uma alta proximidade nos valores, mostrando que, por ambos métodos, um resultado semelhante é obtido em relação ao nível de infecção da mesma colmeia. Universidad Nacional, Costa Rica Centro de Investigaciones Apícolas Tropicales

Bees (members of the super family Apoidea) are the main pollinators in modern agro-ecosystems, where they have a critical positive effect on yield improvement for about 75% of world's crops (Klein ...

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The small hive beetle (SHB) Aethina tumida Murray (Insecta: Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) is a honey bee parasite native to sub-Saharan Africa (Hepburn & Radloff, 1998). It was first described by Murray...

The present work offers an innovative and automatic approach for detecting, tracking, analyzing, and reporting the natural behavior of the Varroa destructor mite and its activity from videos provided by the Tropical Apicultural Research Center (CINAT) in Costa Rica. These videos correspond to the presence of V. destructor in capped Africanized worker honeybee cells in a controlled environment. The main objective of this paper is to present an automatic report of the identification of the mite behavior based on mite information (bioinspired information). First, a calibration system was implemented to enhance the frame. This calibration was achieved by searching the movement-active area (MAA) and the geometrical definition of the V. destructor mite. Then, an automatic detection and tracking was applied. Finally, an automatic classification was used to establish the mite activity. This approach reached up to 92.83% for all processes: detection, tracking, behavior analysis, and activity reporting, in real time and showing a cognitive model of the mite. The proposed approach provides an automatic tool and objective measurement against manual and qualitative methods traditionally applied in this kind of analysis, with a significant potential to be used as a reference in the modeling of the behavior of the V. destructor mite.

In this chapter, the authors tried to develop a tool to automatize and facilitate the detection of Nosema disease. This work develops new technologies in order to solve one of the bottlenecks found on the analysis bee population. The images contain various objects; moreover, this work will be structured on three main steps. The first step is focused on the detection and study of the objects of interest, which are Nosema cells. The second step is to study others' objects in the images: extract characteristics. The last step is to compare the other objects with Nosema. The authors can recognize their object of interest, determining where the edges of an object are, counting similar objects. Finally, the authors have images that contain only their objects of interest. The selection of an appropriate set of features is a fundamental challenge in pattern recognition problems, so the method makes use of segmentation techniques and computer vision. The authors believe that the attainment of this work will facilitate the diary work in many laboratories and provide measures that are more precise for biologists.

En el siguiente trabajo se presentan los principales resultados de investigación obtenidos en la fase de diseño de un algoritmo que permite la detección y el seguimiento de un objeto presente en una grabación de video. El algoritmo se diseñó e implementó en el ambiente de programación MatLab y los videos utilizados fueron facilitados por el Centro de Investigación Apícola Tropical (CINAT) y corresponden a la presencia del ácaro Varroa Destructor en las celdas de abejas melíferas africanizadas. El principal resultado que se tiene es la creación de un programa capaz de detectar y registrar el movimiento del ácaro, lo cual es algo innovador y útil para los estudios del comportamiento de esta especie en las celdas de las abejas melíferas que realiza el CINAT.

The practice of physical activities has become common and necessary. It is important to emphasize on some methodological criteria while planning the activity as a way of initiating this proposal and though this way influence greatly people’s life taking them to the enjoyment of the activity as part of their daily activities. In this investigation it is proposed a system of combining actions with music for having a good health; it means to achieve a good quality of life in the population as a way of satisfying their physical necessities. This investigation was carried out in the sports base #1 taking as universe 205 trainers and a sample of 150 persons among which were children, adolescents, and adults, helped by different research methods from the theoretical and empirical levels that were applied: observation, interview, inquiry, to make a real diagnose of the problem stated. These activities have as objective to increase people´s health and their quality of life with physical exercises. (Dance therapy).

Summary Vesicular transporters are required for the storage of all classical and amino acid neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicles. Some neurons lack known vesicular transporters, suggesting additional neurotransmitter systems remain unidentified. Insect mushroom bodies (MBs) are critical for several behaviors, including learning, but the neurotransmitters released by the intrinsic Kenyon cells (KCs) remain unknown. Likewise, KCs do not express a known vesicular transporter. We report the identification of a novel Drosophila gene portabella ( prt ) that is structurally similar to known vesicular transporters. Both larval and adult brains express PRT in the KCs of the MBs. Additional PRT cells project to the central complex and optic ganglia. prt mutation causes an olfactory learning deficit and an unusual defect in the male's position during copulation that is rescued by expression in KCs. Because prt is expressed in neurons that lack other known vesicular transporters or neurotransmitters, it may define a previously unknown neurotransmitter system responsible for sexual behavior and a component of olfactory learning. Video Abstract

Las abejas polinizan una gran variedad de especies de plantas, incluyendo los cultivos agrícolas. Se estima que cerca del 30% del alimento consumido por la población mundial es derivado de cultivos polinizados por abejas. La infestación por Nosemiasis es una de las principales causas de la pérdida de colmenas a nivel mundial. Los métodos de laboratorio para el diagnóstico del nivel de infestación por este microsporidio son lentos, caros y demandan la presencia de un experto. Se propone un sistema automático, confiable y económico de cuantificación de infestación por Nosema, a partir del procesamiento digital de imágenes.Con el uso de técnicas de segmentación de imágenes, caracterización de objetos y conteo de formas se han reproducido la técnican de Cantwell y Hemocitómetro de manera automática. Para el conteo de esporas se implementaron tres descriptores el tamaño, la excentricidad y la circularidad, de manera tal que son invariantes a la escala y rotación de las imágenes. Se trabajó con un total de 375 fotografías agrupadas en carpetas de 5, las cuales fueron previamente etiquetadas por un experto según el nivel de infestación (muy leve, leve, moderado, semifuerte y fuerte). Con ello se alcanzó un porcentaje de diagnóstico correcto de infestación del 84%.

Dos especies nuevas de Phlegmariurus Holub, P. gracilis A. Rojas y P. nanus A. Rojas & R. Calderón, son descritas aquí. Ellas pertenecen al complejo P. reflexus. La primera se caracteriza por hojas en verticilos alternos de 4 o 5 y estas con el margen entero o dispersa y cortamente dentado. La segunda corresponde a un taxón con tallos bastante pequeños (6–11 cm de largo) y simples a 1–dicotomos, y las hojas con cilios largos y dispersos marginalmente.

The ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor is currently the most important pest of the honey bee, Apis mellifera. Because mite reproduction occurs within the sealed cell, the direct observation of varroa activity inside the cell is difficult. A video observation method using transparent polystyrol cells containing infested brood was used to analyze the behavior of varroa mites in worker brood of Africanized honey bees. We recorded how mites feed on the larva and pupa, construct a fecal accumulation site and how the bee larva carried out some longitudinal movements around the cell. The feeding activity of the foundress mite varies during the course of the cycle. On the prepupa mites were found to feed often (0.3 +/- 0.2 bouts h(-1)) for a period of 8.7 +/- 8.4 min h(-1) and there was no preference for a specific segment as feeding site. On the opposite, during the pupal stage mites fed less often (0.1 +/- 0.1 bouts h(-1)) for a period of 6.2 +/- 4.0 min h(-1) and almost always at a particular site (92.4%). On pupa, 83.7% of the feeding was on the 2nd abdominal segment (n = 92), and only few perforations were found on the thorax. Varroa shows a preference for defecation in the posterior part of the cell (cell apex), close to the bee's anal zone. We found a high correlation between the position of the feeding site on the pupa and the position of the fecal accumulation on the cell wall. Most infested cells have only one fecal accumulation site and it was the favorite resting site for the mite, where it spent 24.3 +/- 3.9 min h(-1). Longitudinal displacements were observed in 28.0% (n = 25) of the analyzed bee larvae. Turning movements around the cell, from the bottom to the top, were carried out by these larvae, mainly during the second day (47.7 +/- 22.5 min h(-1)), just before pupation, with a total time of 874.9 +/- 262.2 min day(-1) (n = 7 individuals). These results in worker brood of Africanized bees demonstrate adaptations of varroa mites to parasitizing the developing bee inside the capped brood cells.

Physiologic and pathogenic changes in amine release induce dramatic behavioral changes, but the underlying cellular mechanisms remain unclear. To investigate these adaptive processes, we have characterized mutations in the Drosophila vesicular monoamine transporter (dVMAT), which is required for the vesicular storage of dopamine, serotonin, and octopamine. dVMAT mutant larvae show reduced locomotion and decreased electrical activity in motoneurons innervating the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) implicating central amines in the regulation of these activities. A parallel increase in evoked glutamate release by the motoneuron is consistent with a homeostatic adaptation at the NMJ. Despite the importance of aminergic signaling for regulating locomotion and other behaviors, adult dVMAT homozygous null mutants survive under conditions of low population density, thus allowing a phenotypic characterization of adult behavior. Homozygous mutant females are sterile and show defects in both egg retention and development; males also show reduced fertility. Homozygotes show an increased attraction to light but are mildly impaired in geotaxis and escape behaviors. In contrast, heterozygous mutants show an exaggerated escape response. Both hetero- and homozygous mutants demonstrate an altered behavioral response to cocaine. dVMAT mutants define potentially adaptive responses to reduced or eliminated aminergic signaling and will be useful to identify the underlying molecular mechanisms.

SummaryThe reproductive rate of Varroa destructor was measured in drone brood of Africanized honey bees (AHB) in Costa Rica. One mature female mite was introduced into a drone cell within 6 h of the cell being capped. Data were obtained from 304 artificially singly infested drone cells from six colonies. Fertility of varroa mites (i.e., those that produced any offspring) was 95.1%. Fifty-three percent of the foundress mites produced viable female offspring. The number of potentially mated female offspring produced per foundress was 2.6 ± 1.0. Eight percent of foundresses produced only immature offspring, 26.5% produced only a female offspring and 7.6% produced only a male offspring. In cells with both female and male offspring, the male or the female was found dead in 8.7% of the cases; male mortality was 6.1%. Although varroa fertility in drone brood was significant in AHB colonies, factors that limited mite reproduction were the absence of a male and the mortality of a male in more than 26.0% of the dro...

Vesicular monoamine transporters (VMATs) mediate the transport of dopamine (DA), serotonin (5HT), and other monoamines into secretory vesicles. The regulation of mammalian VMAT and the related vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) has been proposed to involve membrane trafficking, but the mechanisms remain unclear. To facilitate a genetic analysis of vesicular transporter function and regulation, we have cloned the Drosophila homolog of the vesicular monoamine transporter (dVMAT). We identify two mRNA splice variants (DVMAT-A and B) that differ at their C-terminus, the domain responsible for endocytosis of mammalian VMAT and VAChT. DVMAT-A contains trafficking motifs conserved in mammals but not C. elegans, and internalization assays indicate that the DVMAT-A C-terminus is involved in endocytosis. DVMAT-B contains a divergent C-terminal domain and is less efficiently internalized from the cell surface. Using in vitro transport assays, we show that DVMAT-A recognizes DA, 5HT, octopamine, tyramine, and histamine as substrates, and similar to mammalian VMAT homologs, is inhibited by the drug reserpine and the environmental toxins 2,2,4,5,6-pentachlorobiphenyl and heptachlor. We have developed a specific antiserum to DVMAT-A, and find that it localizes to dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons as well as octopaminergic, type II terminals at the neuromuscular junction. Surprisingly, DVMAT-A is co-expressed at type II terminals with the Drosophila vesicular glutamate transporter. Our data suggest that DVMAT-A functions as a vesicular transporter for DA, 5HT, and octopamine in vivo, and will provide a powerful invertebrate model for the study of transporter trafficking and regulation.

Newly emerged bees with damaged wings, bees crawling in front of the hive and unusually severe adult bee mortality were observed in Africanized honey bee colonies in Costa Rica. A large proportion of the adult bee population in most of these colonies was infested with Varroa destructor. Adult bee samples were sent to the Department of Entomology, Penn state university, for virus analysis. This analysis showed the presence of deformed wing virus and Kashmir bee virus. The occurrence of adult bee mortality and the detection of these viruses in Africanized colonies in Costa Rica infested with V. destructor, should be considered as a cause of concern.

On 26 September 1997, Varroa jacobsoni was detected in samples of brood and adult bees of three colonies from the Los Santos region of Costa Rica. Since no acaricides are registered for veterinary use in Costa Rica, the National University's Centre for Research on Tropical Bees (CINAT) and the Ministry of Agriculture are trying to fight the mite with formic acid.

Se evaluó la mortalidad del ácaro Varroa destructor en cría sellada de obrera, al aplicar ácido fórmico y timol en colmenas de abejas africanizadas. El apiario se ubicó en Atenas, Alajuela - Costa Rica. Este se dividió en tres grupos seleccionados al azar (A, B y C). El grupo A fue tratado con 150 g de ácido fórmico al 65%; en el B se realizó dos aplicaciones de 25 g de timol; el C se utilizó como testigo. La mortalidad de los diferentes estadios de varroa fue evaluada en cría sellada de obrera, revisando la pupa y el fondo de la celda. Se determinó una mortalidad de 86% en los diferentes estadios de varroa en cría sellada de obrera luego de aplicar ácido fórmico. Mientras que en colmenas tratadas con timol y el grupo testigo, la muerte de ácaros, en cría sellada, fue menor a un 10%. Se concluye que, al aplicar ácido fórmico, se produce una alta mortalidad de los diferentes estadios del ácaro V. destructor en la cría sellada de obrera. Mientras tanto, en las colmenas tratadas con timol y el grupo testigo, la mortalidad de ácaros fue considerablemente menor, lo cual puede indicar un efecto directo del ácido fórmico sobre los ácaros presentes en la cría sellada de obrera.

SUMMARYFrom February to July 2001, the reproductive ability of Varroa destructor in artificially infested worker brood cells of Africanized honey bees (AHB) (Apis mellifera) and hybrids (HF1) of AHB X European honey bees was investigated in Costa Rica. No significant differences were found between AHB and HF1 in the percentage of fertile foundress mites (AHB = 69.8%, HF1 = 76.5%), the percentage of foundress mites that produced mature female offspring (AHB = 28%, HF1 = 25.4%), the mean number of offspring per foundress (AHB = 3.4, HF1 = 3.5) and the percentage of foundress mites that produced only immature stages (AHB = 17.3%, HF1 = 18.2%). Nevertheless, the percentage of foundress mites that did not reproduce at all tended to be greater in AHB than in HF1 colonies (AHB = 30.2%, HF1 = 23.5%; P = 0.06). In both groups of bees, the number of fertile mites was higher than that reported in other studies for AHB in Brazil (49–55%). Furthermore, the percentage of non-reproducing mites was greater than the perce...

End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) is a global public health problem. Although there are strategies for its prevention, the number of cases has increased. In order to understand current situation in Puerto Rico (PR) we review available data, which is presented in a descriptive report of the incidence, prevalence and mortality of ESRD during the period 2000-2008. In addition, we compare the incidence and prevalence rates with regard to other countries.We used 2000-2008 USRDS statistics and the QIRN3 for patients on dialysis. Transplanted patients were excluded. Crude rates of incidence and prevalence in PR were calculated for comparison with the United States and other countries. Percentages were calculated to describe the demographic characteristics and primary diagnosis in 2008.During the period 2000-2008 the incidence rate increased by 21.6 percent; from 286.8 to 348.7 pmp. The prevalence rate increased by 27.3 percent; from 861.2 to 1096.2 pmp. The average annual growth in the incidence and prevalence was 2.4 percent and 3.0 percent respectively. During the same period, diabetes mellitus was the leading cause of ESRD reaching 67.4 percent of total new cases in 2008, while in the U.S. was 44.4 percent. Unadjusted mortality decreased slightly in 2008 to 18.5 percent. PR is the fifth country with the highest incidence of patient on dialysis and the first with ESRD due to diabetes mellitus.ESRD is becoming more common and prevalent in PR. We should be more aggressive in establishing public health strategies to reduce ESRD.

Left ventricular aneurysm (LVA) describes a region of ventricular wall that is thinner than the adjacent myocardial segments, balloons outward and exhibits either akinesis or dyskinesis. Congenital LVA is diagnosed by exclusion with a very low incidence, especially in adult patients with very few cases reported. Clinically, most congenital LVA are asymptomatic. The most common complaints are typical angina or atypical chest pain followed by syncope and heart rhythm disturbances. We describe the case of a 26-year-old-woman that presented with monomorphic sustained ventricular tachycardia as a first manifestation of congenital LVA. Successful endoventricular circular patch placement, or Dor procedure was performed. Successful substrate modification for arrhythmia development was performed and confirmed by an electrophysiological study. This would constitute the first case of this nature reported in Puerto Rico.

It is presented an algorithm for detecting and tracking a mite, from videos provided by the Centro de Investigacion Apicola Tropical (CINAT-Costa Rica). These registrations correspond to the presence of the Varroa destructor mite in an Africanized honey bee cell, in a controlled environment. The main objective in this paper is to present the various stages of development of the algorithm and show the results obtained in the percentage of success in detecting. Therefore, we have implemented a calibration system in order to have a frame more enhanced versus the original video. This calibration is done by the searching of the Movement Active Area and definition of our object (the mite V destructor), and finally, an automatic detection and tracking are done. We have reached up to 93.75% for right detection and tracking, working on real time under a Matlab environment.