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Post-print, Glaciovolcanic deposits at Tongariro and Ruapehu volcanoes, New Zealand, represent diverse styles of interaction between wet-based glaciers and andesitic lava. There are iceconfined lavas, and also hydroclastic breccia and subaqueous pyroclastic deposits that formed during effusive and explosive eruptions into meltwater beneath the glacier; they are rare among globally reported products of andesitic glaciovolcanism. The apparent lack of hydrovolcanically fragmented andesite at ice-capped volcanoes has been attributed to a lack of meltwater at the interaction sites because either the thermal characteristics of andesite limit meltwater production or meltwater drains out through leaky glaciers and down steep volcano slopes. We used published field evidence and novel, dynamic andesite-ice experiments to show that, in some cases, meltwater accumulates under glaciers on andesitic volcanoes and that meltwater production rates increase as andesite pushes against an ice wall. We concur with models for eruptions beneath ice sheets showing that the glacial conditions and pre-eruption edifice morphology are more important controls on the style of glaciovolcanism and its products than magma composition and the thermal properties of magmas. Glaciovolcanic products can be useful proxies for paleoenvironment, and the range of andesitic products and the hydrological environments in which andesite erupts are greater than hitherto appreciated., R.P. Cole received funding from the Geological Soci-ety of New Zealand Wellman Research Award and the University of Otago Polar Environments Research Theme. The New Zealand Department of Conserva-tion provided logistical assistance in the field. Brent Pooley and Luke Easterbrook assisted with making the experimental apparatus. Matteo Demurtas helped Cole in using MatLab. Kelly Russell, John Smellie, and Alison Graettinger provided constructive reviews.

In 2012, the eruption of deep-sea volcano Havre produced an abundance of fine ash at a depth of ~ 1000 m below sea level. In this study the 2D shapes of Havre ash grains retrieved from the seafloor were compared quantitatively with those of particles generated in a suite of different fragmentation experiments, which used remelted rhyolitic rock and pumice from the eruption site. A new statistical data analysis technique, denoted as Dendrogrammatic Analysis of Particle Morphology (DAPM) is introduced. It is designed to compare large numbers of morphometric data sets containing shape information for a set of ash particles to group them by morphological similarities and to visualize these clusters in a dendrogram. Further steps involve t tests and equivalence tests and reveal morphometric differences as well as matching features. The DAPM suggests that the majority of Havre ash was thermohydraulically produced by induced fuel coolant-interaction. A subset of ash particles features an elongated tube morphology. Their morphometry matches that of particles that were experimentally produced by a combination of shearing and quenching, and we infer that the natural particles were formed by synextrusive ash-venting., This study was supported by MARSDEN grant U001616; Havre samples were obtained with NSF funding EAR1447559. T.D. is supported by the Icelandic Research Fund (Rannís) Grant Nr. 206527-051. R.J.C. was funded by Australian Research Council grants DP110102196 and DE150101190, and by US National Science Foundation grant OCE1357443.

The majority of Earth's volcanic eruptions occur beneath the sea, but the limited number of direct observations and samples limits our understanding of these unseen events. Subaerial eruptions lend some insight, but direct extrapolation from the subaerial to the deep sea is precluded by the great differences in pressure, thermal conditions, density and rheology, and the interplay among them. Here we present laboratory fragmentation experiments that mimic deep-sea explosive eruptions and compare our laboratory observations with those from the kilometre-deep submarine eruption of Havre Volcano, Kermadec Arc, New Zealand, in 2012. We find that the Havre eruption involved explosive fragmentation of magma by a pressure-insensitive interaction between cool water and hot magma, termed an induced fuel-coolant interaction. The laboratory experiments show that this water-magma interaction is initiated by the formation of cracks in cooling magma into which the water coolant can infiltrate, driving explosive fragmentation. Explosive submarine eruptions have previously been considered unlikely because stabilization of a vapour film at the magma-water contact was thought to be a key requirement but is suppressed at depths exceeding 100 m. However, here we demonstrate that these induced fuel-coolant interactions between magma and water can occur in a range of wet environments regardless of pressure, from the subaerial to the deep sea, and may operate on different planets, as well as apply to materials other than magma and water.

Brittle magmatic fragmentation plays a crucial role in explosive eruptions. It represents the starting point of hazardous explosive events that can affect large areas surrounding erupting volcanoes. Knowing the initial energy released during this fragmentation process is fundamental for the understanding of the subsequent dynamics of the eruptive gas-particle mixture and consequently for the forecasting of the erupting column’s behavior. The specific kinetic energy (SKE) of the particles quantifies the initial velocity shortly after the fragmentation and is therefore a necessary variable to model the gas-particle conduit flow and eruptive column regime. In this paper, we present a new method for its determination based on fragmentation experiments and identification of the timings of energy release. The results obtained on compositions representative for basaltic and phonolitic melts show a direct dependence on magma material properties: poorly vesiculated basaltic melts from Stromboli show the highest SKE values ranging from 7.3 to 11.8 kJ/kg, while experiments with highly vesiculated samples from Stromboli and Vesuvius result in lower SKE values (3.1 to 3.8 kJ/kg). The described methodology presents a useful tool for quantitative estimation of the kinetic energy release of magmatic fragmentation processes, which can contribute to the improvement of hazard assessment.

International audience; The presence of water at volcanic vents can have dramatic effects on fragmentation and eruption dynamics, but little is known about how the presence of particulate matter in external water will further alter eruptions. Volcanic edifices are inherently "dirty" places, where particulate matter of multiple origins and grainsizes typically abounds. We present the results of experiments designed to simulate non-explosive interactions between molten basalt and various "coolants," ranging from homogeneous suspensions of 0 to 30 mass% bentonite clay in pure water, to heterogeneous and/or stratified suspensions including bentonite, sand, synthetic glass beads and/or naturally-sorted pumice. Four types of data are used to characterise the interactions: (1) visual/video observations; (2) grainsize and morphology of resulting particles; (3) heat-transfer data from a network of eight thermocouples; and (4) acoustic data from three force sensors. In homogeneous coolants with ~20% sediment, heat transfer is by forced convection and conduction, and thermal granulation is less efficient, resulting in fewer blocky particles, larger grainsizes, and weaker acoustic signals. Many particles are droplet-shaped or/and "vesicular," containing bubbles filled with coolant. Both of these particle types indicate significant hydrodynamic magma-coolant mingling, and many of them are rewelded into compound particles. The addition of coarse material to heterogeneous suspensions further slows heat transfer thus reducing thermal granulation, and variable interlocking of large particles prevents efficient hydrodynamic mingling. This results primarily in rewelded melt piles and inefficient distribution of melt and heat throughout the coolant volume. Our results indicate that even modest concentrations of sediment in water will significantly limit heat transfer during non-explosive magma-water interactions. At high concentrations, the dramatic reduction in cooling efficiency and increase in mingling help to explain globular peperite, and provide information relevant to analyses of premixing associated with highly-explosive molten fuel-coolant interactions in debris-filled volcanic vents.

A basic experimental study of the behavior of magma rheology was carried out on remelted volcanic rocks using wide gap viscometry. The complex composition of magmatic melts leads to complicated rheologic behavior which cannot be described with one simple model. Therefore, measurement procedures which are able to quantify non-Newtonian behavior have to be employed. Furthermore, the experimental apparatus must be able to deal with inhomogeneities of magmatic melts. We measured the viscosity of a set of materials representing a broad range of volcanic processes. For the lower viscous melts (low-silica compositions), non-Newtonian behavior is observed, whereas the high-silica melts show Newtonian behavior in the measured temperature and shear rate range (T = 1423 K − 1623 K, γ = 10 − 2 s − 1 − 20 s − 1 ). The non-Newtonian materials show power-law behavior. The measured viscosities η and power-law indexes m lie in the intervals 8 Pa s ≤ η ≤ 210 3 Pa s, 0.71 ≤ m ≤ 1.0 (Grimsvotn basalt), 0.9 Pa s ≤ η ≤ 350 Pa s, 0.61 ≤ m ≤ 0.93 (Hohenstoffeln olivine-melilitite), and 8 Pa s ≤ η ≤ 1.510 4 Pa s, 0.55 ≤ m ≤ 1.0 (Sommata basalt). Measured viscosities of the Newtonian high-silica melts lie in the range 10 4 Pa s ≤ η ≤ 310 5 Pa s.

Pyroclastic flows represent the most hazardous events of explosive volcanism, one striking example being the famous historical eruption of Vesuvius that destroyed Pompeii (AD 79). Much of our knowledge of the mechanics of pyroclastic flows comes from theoretical models and numerical simulations. Valuable data are also stored in the geological record of past eruptions, including the particles contained in pyroclastic deposits, but the deposit characteristics are rarely used for quantifying the destructive potential of pyroclastic flows. By means of experiments, we validate a model that is based on data from pyroclastic deposits. The model allows the reconstruction of the current's fluid-dynamic behaviour. Model results are consistent with measured values of dynamic pressure in the experiments, and allow the quantification of the damage potential of pyroclastic flows.

Discrete explosive bursts are known from many volcanic eruptions. In maar–diatreme eruptions, they have occurred in debris-filled volcanic vents when magma interacted with groundwater, implying that material mobilized by such explosions passed through the overlying and enclosing debris to reach the surface. Although other studies have addressed the form and characteristics of craters formed by discrete explosions in unconsolidated material, no details are available regarding the structure of the disturbed debris between the explosion site and the surface. Field studies of diatreme deposits reveal cross-cutting, steep-sided zones of non-bedded volcaniclastic material that have been inferred to result from sedimentation of material transported by “debris jets” driven by explosions. In order to determine the general processes and deposit geometry resulting from discrete, explosive injections of entrained particles through a particulate host, we ran a series of analogue experiments. Specific volumes of compressed (0.5–2.5 MPa) air were released in bursts that drove gas-particle dispersions through a granular host. The air expanded into and entrained coloured particles in a small crucible before moving upward into the host (white particles). Each burst drove into the host an expanding cavity containing air and coloured particles. Total duration of each run, recorded with high-speed video, was approximately 0.5–1 s. The coloured beads sedimented into the transient cavity. This same behaviour was observed even in runs where there was no breaching of the surface, and no coloured beads ejected. A steep-sided body of coloured beads was left that is similar to the cross-cutting pipes observed in deposits filling real volcanic vents, in which cavity collapse can result not only from gas escape through a granular host as in the experiments, but also through condensation of water vapour. A key conclusion from these experiments is that the geometry of cross-cutting volcaniclastic deposits in volcanic vents is not directly informative of the geometry of the “intrusions” that formed them. An additional conclusion is that complex structures can form quickly from discrete events.

In diatremes and other volcanic vents, steep bodies of volcaniclastic material having differing properties (particle size distribution, proportion of lithic fragments, etc.) from those of the surrounding vent-filling volcaniclastic material are often found. It has been proposed that cylindrical or cone-shaped bodies result from the passage of “debris jets” generated after phreatomagmatic explosions or other discrete subterranean bursts. To learn more about such phenomena, we model experimentally the injection of gas-particulate dispersions through other particles. Analogue materials (glass beads or sand) and a finite amount of compressed air are used in the laboratory. The gas is made available by rapidly opening a valve—therefore the injection of gas and coloured particles into a granular host is a brief (

Molten–Fuel–Coolant Interaction (MFCI) experiments were performed using remelted foiditic rock samples from the West Eifel volcanic field (Germany). Two experimental series were carried out with one magmatic melt and two water compositions. Bi-distilled water was used in the first series (DW-1 to DW-5). In the second series (SW-1 to SW-5), the bi-distilled water was saturated (350 g L − 1 ) with sodium chloride (NaCl). For both experimental series the fragmentation history and the energy release were recorded and compared. The smallest particles (≤ 125 μm) were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Most MFCI experiments with bi-distilled water reached higher explosion intensities than the experiments with the saline water. This was accompanied by higher particle ejection velocities as well as the formation of more fine-grained and more interactive particles of angular shape. Additionally, the smallest artificial pyroclasts were examined by evolved gas analyses (EGA). The particles from the MFCI experiments with salt solutions are found to contain more sodium hydroxide (NaOH). These observations can be explained by thermodynamic arguments. In contrast to the MFCI experiments with pure water, an additional reaction occurs with saline water that results in evolution of hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas and leaves a residue of sodium hydroxide. The MFCI process with saline water consumes more enthalpy and Gibbs free energy, so that less energy is available for the explosion. With other sodium halides dissolved in the water (NaF, NaBr or NaI) the additional reaction can be predicted to have greater or lesser effects on phreatomagmatic explosions.

Explosive volcanic eruptions are the result of intensive magma and rock fragmentation, and they produce volcanic ash, which consists of fragments

Extrusive submarine volcanism must be influenced by magma–water interaction. In the continental areas, due to groundwater and hydrous fluids, uprising magma frequently interacts with water. The major effect of magma–water interaction is an increase in thermal energy flux and induction of a special type of magma fragmentation, i.e., phreatomagmatic fragmentation. The products of this process are typical and discriminative: angular, blocky particles with diameters between 30 and 130 μm, and peculiar surface textures. Intensities of magma–water interaction strongly depend on the material and environmental parameters and on the contact dynamics. They range from mild effusion to extremely destructive explosive pulses.

Hydrodynamic mingling of magma and liquefied sediments is generally accepted to represent the key process in the formation of some peperites. Experimental studies on simulant liquids and calculations based on recent empirical findings in the field of polymer research were undertaken to investigate the effectiveness of this process. These studies show that for a wide range of shear rates a laminar flow behaviour of the system magma–liquefied sediment can be expected, i.e. turbulent mingling is not a realistic scenario. Formation of peperitic fabrics with grain sizes on a cm scale can hydrodynamically be explained under realistic intrusion velocities. In addition to the hydrodynamics, cooling processes must also be considered during peperite formation. Calculations of the cooling history of the juvenile magmatic component under realistic cooling conditions demonstrate a significant limitation of the hydrodynamic mingling time. The consequence for peperite formation under normal intrusion conditions is that domains of magmatic melt and domains of liquefied sediment smaller than 10 cm are not probable. However, as smaller domain sizes (peperitic grain sizes) exist in nature, we conclude that either those peperites represent the products of explosive events or that hydrodynamic mingling was accompanied by additional fragmentation processes.

To simulate and predict the behaviour of a lava flow, it is essential to have a thorough knowledge of its thermophysical properties. Therefore, thermal conductivity, specific heat, and viscosity of volcanic rock material were determined in a wide temperature range. Especially, the properties of the molten material were investigated in detail. The material was taken from the Pietre-Cotte lava flow located on the isle of Vulcano, north of Sicily. The thermal conductivity of the material was determined in the temperature range 293-1623 K by the hot-wire method. Melting occurs above 1100K. The specific heat was measured by differential scanning calorimetry between 347 and 1671 K. The viscosity of the lava melt was determined with a rotational viscometer HAAKE M5. The viscometer was enclosed in a high-temperature furnace optimised for the temperature range 1373-1598 K.

The source conditions of volcanic plumes and collapsing fountains are investigated by means of large-scale experiments. In the experiments, gas-particle jets issuing from a cylindrical conduit are forced into the atmosphere at different mass flow rates. Dense jets (high particle volumetric concentration, e. g., C-0>0.01) generate collapsing fountains, whose height scales with the squared exit velocity. This is consistent with Bernoulli's equation, which is a good approximation if air entrainment is negligible. In this case, kinetic energy is transformed into potential energy without any significant loss by friction with the atmosphere. The dense collapsing fountain, on hitting the ground, generates an intense shear flow similar to a pyroclastic density current. Dilute hot jets (low particle volumetric concentration, e. g., C-03).

Laboratory experiments on the fragmentation and expansion of magmatic melt have been performed using remelted volcanic rock at magmatic temperatures as magma simulant. A specially designed dc amplifier in combination with high speed data recording was used to detect short-time electrostatic field effects related to the fragmentation and expansion history of the experimental system, as documented by simultaneous force and pressure recording, as well as by high-speed cinematography. It was found that (1) the voltage-time ratio of electrostatic field gradients (100 to 104 V/s) reflects different physical mechanisms of fragmentation and expansion and (2) the maximum voltage measured in 1 m distance (−0.1 to −180 V) can be correlated with the intensity of the respective processes. Based on these experimental results, a field method was developed and tested at Stromboli volcano in Italy. A 0.8 m rod antenna was used to detect the dc voltage against local ground (i.e., the electrostatic field gradient), at a distance of 60 to 260 m from the respective vent. Upwind position of the detection site was chosen to prevent interference caused by contact of charged ash particles with the antenna. A standard 8 Hz geophone was used to detect the accompanying seismicity. Three types of volcanic activity occurred during the surveillance operation; two of these could be clearly related to specific electrical and seismical signals. A typical delay time was found between the electrical and the seismical signal, corresponding to the seismic velocity within the crater deposits. Using a simple first-order electrostatic model, the field measurements were recalibrated to the laboratory scale. Comparison of field and laboratory data at first approximation revealed striking similarities, thus encouraging the further development of this technique for real-time surveillance operation at active volcanoes.

We propose a phenomenological model for explosive water-melt interactions. Thermohydraulic fracturing was experimentally identified to be the main contributor to explosive energy release. We found experimental evidence that the model is applicable for a variety of melt compositions with very different thermal and rheological properties. The proposed mechanism does not require special premixing conditions. The pre-explosive geometries yielding the most intensive explosions were found to be cm to dm sized water domains entrapped by excess melt. First approximations to the thermal to kinetic energy conversion ratio show that the identified process can explain the occurence and the damage potential observed in industrial accidents and volcanic eruptions.

Experimental studies have been performed on the thermal properties of an olivine-melilitite in solid and partly molten states in a temperature range between 288 and 1470 K. Densities (ρ), heat capacities (Cp), and thermal diffusivities (α) were measured by dilatometry, heat flux differential scanning calorimetry, and laser flash analysis and used to calculate the thermal conductivities (λ). In the solid state (288 to 1220 K) ρ decreased from 3091 to 2993 kg/m3, Cp increased from 0.76 to 1.41 J g−1 K−1, α varied between 5.1 and 8.7 10−3 cm2/s, and λ varied between 1.75 and 2.54 W m−1 K−1. In the partly molten state (1300 to 1470 K) Cp increased from 1.56 to 1.70 J g−1 K−1, α decreased from 2.5 to 2.2 10−3 cm2/s, and λ decreased from 1.16 to 1.09 W m−1 K−1. The importance of these data for the physical description of processes acting during explosive volcanic eruptions is discussed.

Detailed field investigations of kimberlite pipes of the Upper Cretaceous Gibeon Kimberlite Field in southern Namibia revealed geologic features which do neither agree with extensive nor with explosive vesiculation. In the pipe Hanaus 2, vesicle-free magmatic kimberlite intruded the diatreme as a plug. Here we report on the first experiments in which phreatomagmatic explosions were produced with remolten natural, non-fragmental magmatic kimberlite from the Hanaus 2 central plug as a best fit model kimberlite magma system. After water was injected into the melt under controlled conditions, the resulting water–melt mix was triggered by a low-energy shock wave ( 400 m/s.

Experimental studies have been performed to evaluate pre-explosive water–melt mixes with respect to explosive volcanic molten–fuel–coolant interaction (MFCI), i.e., phreatomagmatic explosion. Remolten ultrabasic volcanic rock was used as a magma simulant. Measurement of the explosion intensity was used to determine optimal premixing conditions. A well-defined optimal range was found for the hydrodynamic mixing energy (differential flow speed of 4.2 m/s), as well as for the water/melt mass ratio (0.03 to 0.04) under experimental conditions. The mass flux of water had a minor influence on the explosion intensity. Additionally, transparent mixing experiments with silicon oil and inked water were carried out. They indicate a direct dependence of the pre-explosive water-melt interface area on the explosion intensity. The experimental results show that the contact conditions of water and melt required for explosive MFCI may easily be established in natural volcanic systems. Thus, explosive MFCI is a probable mechanism of explosive volcanism.

With the aim to enhance interpretation of fragmentation mechanisms during explosive volcanism from size and shape characteristics of pyroclasts experimental studies have been conducted using remelted volcanic rock (olivine-melilitite). The melt was fragmented and ejected from a crucible by the controlled release of pressurized air volumes (method 1) or by controlled generation of phreatomagmatic explosions (Molten Fuel Coolant Interaction (MFCI); method 2). Both methods were adjusted so that the ejection history of the melt was identical in both cases. The experiments demonstrate that exclusively during MFCI, angular particles in the grain size interval 32 to 130 μm are generated that show surface textures dominated by cracks and pitting. The physical process of their generation is described as a brittle process acting at cooling rates of >106 K/s, at stress rates well above 3 GPa/m2, and during ∼700 μs. In this time period the emission of intense shock waves in the megahertz range was detected, releasing kinetic energy of >1000 J. By both experimental methods, three more types of particles were produced in addition, which could be identified and related to the acceleration and ejection history of the melt: spherical particles, elongated particles, and Pele's hair. Abundance and grain size distribution of these particles were found to be proportional to the rate of acceleration and the speed of ejection but were not influenced by the experimental method used. Pele's hair occurred at ejection speeds of >75 m/s.

Overview Magma–water interaction is an unavoidable consequence of the hydrous nature of the Earth’s crust, and may take place in environments ranging from submarine to desert regions, producing volcanic features ranging from passively effused lava to highly explosive events. Hydrovolcanism is the term that describes this interaction at or near the Earth’s surface, and it encompasses the physical and chemical dynamics that determine the resulting intrusive or extrusive behavior, and the character of eruptive products and deposits. The development of physical theory describing the energetics and the hydrodynamics (dynamics of fluids and solids at high strain rates) of magma–water interaction relies on an understanding of the physics of water behavior in conditions of rapid heating, the physics of magma as a material of complex rheology, and the physics of the interaction between the two, as well as detailed field observations and interpretation of laboratory experiments. Of primary importance to address are the nature of heat exchange between the magma and water during interaction, the resulting fragmentation of the magma, and the constraints on system energetics predicted by equilibrium and non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Taken together, these approaches elucidate the relationships among aqueous environment, interaction physics, and eruptive phenomena and landforms. Introduction: magma and the hydrosphere The vast majority of volcanic eruptions take place under water because most volcanism concentrates at mid-oceanic ridges where new oceanic crust is produced. By definition, every kind of extrusive subaqueous volcanism on Earth is hydrovolcanic since some degree of water interaction must take place. The hydrosphere also exists in continental areas, as the consequence not only of lakes and rivers, but also of groundwater and hydrous fluids that circulate in joints and faults in the upper crust and fill pore space in sedimentary rocks. Such locations are typically referred to as geohydrological environments. As a consequence, subaerial volcanism is commonly influenced by magma–water interaction. Chapter 12 describes deep-sea eruptions in greater detail, whereas this chapter focuses on magma–water interaction in surface and near-surface environments.

This paper was partially supported by a research project (project INGV-DPC Paroxysm V2/03, 2007–2009) funded by Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia and by the Italian Civil Protection.

[1] The recent eruptions of Eyjafjallajokull and Grimsvotn volcanoes in Iceland demonstrate the importance of a better understanding of processes leading to the formation of volcanic ash, specifically of fine volcanic ash that poses a threat to air traffic. Continuous deformation and brittle-type experiments were carried out to better constrain these processes. The studies on short-time continuous deformation behavior of basaltic melt showed viscoelastic properties deviating from hydrodynamic Newtonian models by more than 5 orders of magnitude. High-temperature deformation experiments on basaltic rock samples revealed an increase of elastic strengths as approaching the melting regime, also pointing to a very complex behavior at the solid-ductile boundary. Understanding magma fragmentation from the “liquid” side is a challenge, but meanwhile we propose a pragmatic solution: a thermodynamic model based on fracture mechanics. This model is in agreement with experiments and observations that show that fine volcanic ash is produced by brittle-type fragmentation of magma. A critical material property was defined, characterizing the conditions for brittle fragmentation: the fracture surface energy density, which represents the critical fragmentation energy. Short-term fracture experiments using silicate glass have been performed to investigate the formation of ash-sized particles by brittle failure and to extract this critical physical property, which was found to range between 40 and 130 J/m2. This value is in good agreement to fragmentation energies determined from experiments using remelted volcanic rocks. Now there is a tool to define critical conditions for the production of volcanic ash of a specific magma type.

We report on laboratory and field measurements of electrical effects caused by dislocation of different geomaterials at a shear plane. The onset of the electrical signals precedes the macroscopic dislocation. From the results, we propose a phenomenological model in four steps: mechanical loading, charge generation in the creep phase, charge separation during dislocation, and mechanical relaxation and electrical discharge. This technique is aimed to be used in landslide surveillance operation.

[1] Compared to “dry” atmospheric eruption of magma or “dry” magma/rock contact, intensity and time scale of heat discharge from magma to the surroundings is strongly modified by an effective coolant: water or water-sediment mixes. In the case of subaqueous or subglacial eruptions magma-water contact must take place and can result in phreatomagmatic explosions. Even if no explosions occur, rapid cooling results in the formation of pyroclasts by thermal granulation. To study this process in detail, a short-term calorimeter was built for the direct measurement of the heat-flux from a magmatic melt to a coolant. Volcanic rocks from recent eruptions in Iceland were remelted and used to produce jets of melt poured into a coolant-filled container. Particles could be produced in a non-explosive process, that are practical identical to those from natural hyaloclastites. The process' fragmentation energy is about 10% of the total heat transferred from melt to coolant.

The deposits from explosive volcanic eruptions (those eruptions that release mechanical energy over a short time span1) are characterized by an abundance of volcanic ash2,3. This ash is produced by fragmentation of the magma driving the eruption and by fragmenting and ejecting parts of the pre-existing crust (host rocks). Interactions between rising magma and the hydrosphere (oceans, lakes, and ground water) play an important role in explosive volcanism4,5, because of the unique thermodynamic properties of water that allow it to very effectively convert thermal into mechanical energy. Although the relative proportion of magma to host-rock fragments is well preserved in the pyroclastic rocks deposited by such eruptions, it has remained difficult to quantitatively assess the interaction of magma with liquid water from the analysis of pyroclastic deposits2,3,4,5. Here we report the results of a study of natural pyroclastic sequences combined with scaled laboratory experiments. We find that surface features of ash grains can be used to identify the dynamic contact of magma with liquid water. The abundance of such ash grains can then be related to the water/magma mass ratios during their interaction.

[1] Experimental studies on explosive molten fuel-coolant interaction (MFCI) using basaltic melt compositions and water as the coolant have provided insight into the physical processes of basaltic and andesitic phreatomagmatic volcanism. Abundant field evidence indicates that rhyolitic and dacitic phreatomagmatism occurs in nature, but it has not been possible until now to generate laboratory MFCI explosions from the interaction between high-silica melts and water under laboratory conditions. The high viscosity of these melts apparently prevents formation of an effective hydrodynamic premix of melt and water, the documented precursor of experimental explosive MFCI caused by mafic melts. Our new experiments utilized samples from a rhyolitic tuff ring volcano in Mexico (Tepexitl). An experimental approach was developed, in which premixing conditions were generated by mechanical deformation of the melt, leading to brittle-type fragmentation at the melt-water interface. Physical measurements recorded during laboratory explosion provide quantitative evidence for rhyolitic explosive MFCI. Additionally, a comparison of experimentally produced particles with natural ones from Tepexitl deposits show nearly identical chemical/mineralogical composition, grain size, and grain morphology. Detailed textural analysis confirmed the presence of phreatomagmatically produced particles in both experimental and natural analog particles. The results from this series of experiments indicate that under natural conditions, stress-induced magma fracturing can lead to a critical magma-water-interface growths and trigger phreatomagmatic explosions of high-silica magma. The water source for these eruptions may include shallow aquifers, surface water bodies, strong precipitation, and intrusion into ice or wet, unconsolidated sediments.

[1] Basaltic melt drives most of earth's volcanism. Understanding its rheology is crucial for any model of magma transport and volcanic eruption. Basaltic magma is generally treated as a quasi Newtonian liquid, but there are observations of Non-Newtonian behaviour. With a method, that allows measurement of Non-Newtonian viscosity of a representative melt (molten basaltic rock), we found a strong shear rate dependency of viscosity in a wide range of temperatures. The temperature-viscosity dependency indicates properties of the molten phase as the cause. The viscosity data are in good agreement with a power law model.

[1] The release of kinetic energy during explosive volcanic eruptions is a key parameter for hazard assessment and civil defense. The explosive production of volcanic ash by intensive fragmentation of magma and host rocks represents a substantial part of this energy. For cases of explosive eruption where predominantly host rock was fragmented (phreatomagmatic eruptions) to form the major part of volcanic ash, rock mechanical parameters could be measured and fragmentation energies assigned. In cases where most of the produced ash is of juvenile origin (magmatic eruptions) a general method for the determination of fragmentation energy is still lacking. In this article we introduce a thermodynamic approach that relates grain size data of the produced ash deposits to shear rates acting during the deformation of magma. With the use of a standardized fragmentation experiment the physical parameters needed to determine the specific fragmentation energy and deformation history were measured. The experiment was calibrated and tested with two case histories of the Campi Flegrei volcanic field (southern Italy). Both eruptions are classified as “most probable worst-case scenarios” during the next period of activity, to be expected within the next 10–100 years. Using the experimentally determined specific fragmentation energies, the total mass of produced ash of each eruption, and assuming an energy dissipation as observed in the experiments, the total kinetic energy release of the worst-case Campi Flegrei eruptive events to come were calculated with 25 and 40 kt TNT equivalent.

We report on the experimental study of electrical phenomena during explosive volcanic eruptions, which provides qualitative and quantitative insight into different fragmentation and eruption mechanisms of magmatic melt. The experiments show that air friction and surface enlargement by hydro- and/or aerodynamic magma fragmentation are only minor contributors to electrical charging of erupted particle clouds in comparison to thermo-hydraulic fracturing of magma by explosive magma/water interaction. This process has the potency to explain the frequently observed occurrence of lightning in eruption clouds of explosive volcanic events.

Strong electrical signals that correspond to the Mw = 9.3 earthquake of 26 December 2004, whichoccurred at 0058:50.7 UTC off the west coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia, were recorded by an electrostatic sensor (a device that detects short-term variations in Earth's electrostatic field) at a seismic station in Italy, which had been installed to study the influence of local earthquakes on a new landslide monitoring system. Electrical signals arrived at the station practically instantaneously and were detected up to several hours before the onset of the Sumatra earthquake (Figure 1) as well as before local quakes. The corresponding seismic signals (p-waves) arrived 740 seconds after the start of the earthquake. Because the electrical signals travel at the speed of light, electrical monitoring for the global detection of very strong earthquakes could be an important tool in significantly increasing the hazard alert window.

[1] The arrival of a new hot batch of magma changes the thermal and the chemical state of a volcanic plumbing system. Formation of hybrid magma by chemical dilution (liquid miscibility model) of different magma batches is generally accepted. Observations of drop-like domains of less evolved (newer) magma in more evolved (host) magma point to the contribution of a mechanical mixing process (liquid immiscibility). The interplay of both mechanisms seems to control the time scale from the dormant to the active state of a volcano. We carried out laboratory experiments using melts from natural volcanic rock compositions with the aim to validate model calculations for shear rate dependent domain sizes. The results confirmed the model and also the importance of hydro-mechanically mixing for chemical dilution. The key process, however, that is able to change the state of a magma reservoir on a critical time scale is hydrodynamic magma mixing.

This laboratory study reports on electrical phenomena during the explosive eruption of a basaltoid silicate melt. Contact electricity is produced in the phase of thermo-hydraulic fracturing of magma during the explosive interaction with water. The electrical charge produced is directly proportional to the force of the explosion, as the force of explosion is linearly proportional to the surface generated by the thermo-hydraulic fracturing. Simulation of the ejection history using inerted gas as a driving medium under otherwise constant conditions did not result in significant electric charging. The results have the potential to explain in nature observed lightening in eruption clouds of explosive volcanic events.

Thermohydraulic explosion, caused by direct contact of hot liquids with cold water, represent a major danger of volcanism and in technical processes. Based on experimental observations and nonequilibrium thermodynamics we propose a model of heat transfer from the hot liquid to the water during the thermohydraulic fragmentation process. The model was validated using the experimentally observed thermal energy release. From a database of more than 1000 experimental runs, conducted during the last 20 years, a standardized entrapment experiment was defined, where a conversion of 1 MJ∕kg of thermal energy to kinetic energy within 700μs is observed. The results of the model calculations are in good agreement with this value. Furthermore, the model was found to be robust with respect to the material properties of the hot melt, which also is observed in experiments using different melt compositions. As the model parameters can be easily obtained from size and shape properties of the products of thermohydraulic exp...

[1] Thermohydraulic explosions were produced by Molten Fuel Coolant Interaction (MFCI) experiments using remelted shoshonitic rocks from Vulcano (Italy). The fragmentation history and energy release were recorded. The resulting products were recovered and analyzed with the scanning electron microscope. Fine particles from experiments show shape and surface features that result from melt fragmentation in brittle mode. These clasts relate to the thermohydraulic phase of the MFCI, where most of the mechanical energy is released; they are here called “active” particles. The total surface area of such particles is proportional to the energy of the respective explosions. Other particles from experiments show shape and surface features that result from melt fragmentation in a ductile regime. These fragments, called “passive” particles, form after the thermohydraulic phase, during the expansion phase of the MFCI. In order to verify thermohydraulic explosions in volcanic eruptions, we compared experimental products with samples from phreatomagmatic base-surge deposits of Vulcano. Ash particles from the experiments show features similar to those from the deposits, suggesting that the experiments reproduced the same fragmentation dynamics. To achieve discrimination between active and passive particles, we calculated shape parameters from image analysis. The mass of active particles in base-surge deposits was calculated. As the material properties for the natural samples are identical to the experimental ones, the energy measurements and calculations of the experiments can be applied. For a single phreatomagmatic eruption at Vulcano, a maximum mechanical energy release of 2.75 × 1013 J was calculated, representing a TNT analogue of 6.5 kt.

Cooling of natural silicate melts and energy transfer to the environment are controlled by the temperature-dependent thermal conductivity. We describe a method that allows a correlation between temperature-dependent strain rate and a bulk temperature during a cooling or heating process under quasisteady state conditions in a Newtonian flow regime. A rotational viscometer measured data for experimental cooling curves of remelted volcanic rock materials. From these data we can calculate the thermal conductivity of an unknown melt after we calibrate the setup with a melt of known thermal conductivity as a by-product of viscosimetry.

The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajokull volcano was characterized by pulsating activity. Discrete ash bursts merged at higher altitude and formed a sustained quasi-continuous eruption column. High-resolution near-field videos were recorded on 8-10 May, during the second explosive phase of the eruption, and supplemented by contemporary aerial observations. In the observed period, pulses occurred at intervals of 0.8 to 23.4 s (average, 4.2 s). On the basis of video analysis, the pulse volume and the velocity of the reversely buoyant jets that initiated each pulse were determined. The expansion history of jets was tracked until the pulses reached the height of transition from a negatively buoyant jet to a convective buoyant plume about 100 m above the vent. Based on the assumption that the density of the gas-solid mixture making up the pulse approximates that of the surrounding air at the level of transition from the jet to the plume, a mass flux ranging between 2.2 and 3.5 . 10\(^4\) kg/s was calculated. This mass eruption rate is in good agreement with results obtained with simple models relating plume height with mass discharge at the vent. Our findings indicate that near-field measurements of eruption source parameters in a pulsating eruption may prove to be an effective monitoring tool. A comparison of the observed pulses with those generated in calibrated large-scale experiments reveals very similar characteristics and suggests that the analysis of near-field sensors could in the future help to constrain the triggering mechanism of explosive eruptions.

Accepted for publication in (Geophysical Research Letters). Copyright (2009) American Geophysical Union.