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The study was conducted with main purpose to assess the floral diversity and explore invasive species on rhinoceros habitat in two different research sites with in Chitwan National Park. The rhino is placed in the list of endangered species by International Union for Conservation of Nature and highly threatened due to loss their habitat by rapidly increasing invasive species. The study was done for a period of one month in (September to October) 2020. The 10 m, 5 m, and 1 m radius circular quadrates were utilized to gather data on trees, shrubs, and herbs, respectively. A total of 25 plant species were recorded from 15 plots. The importance values of each species of trees were analyzed. Seven species of invasive types were recoded from 15 plots (10 plots from riverine forest and 5 plots from grassland). Mikania micrantha was most dominant species with IVI 103.02 followed by Pogostemon benghalensis with IVI 78.93 and Chromolaena odorata with IVI 34.57 as the second and third most dominant invasive species respectively. The conclusion is that invasive species have an impact on the grassland and riverine forest, which are needed by the mega herbivore. The management of rhino habitat and the preservation of the rhino population are seriously threatened.

Solid waste is global problem relating to environment, society and economics. Waste management is challenging issue as the quantity has been increasing with increase of population, urbanization and economic status. Some dozens of printed and online published books, journals, dissertations, website of agencies etc. were reviewed and by making outline and following guideline this article was prepared. It is found that the waste production varies from 0.25Kg to 1.38 Kg per capita per day in developing countries. In south South American countries it was recorded 1.07 Kg/capita/day, in Asian countries 0.4 to 1.62Kg/capita/day and in African region it was found 0.49 Kg/capita/day of waste production. The waste contains mostly biodegradable (50% to 80%). The collection system was very poor and from rural area only 10% to 20% waste and in urban area 44% to 90% of total produced waste was carried to collecting and management system. The common waste management’s adopted in developing countries were open dumping, landfill site, composting, incineration and open burning etc. From 18% to 92% of waste were found to dumping. In east pacific region 46% and in American countries 68.5% of total waste was carried to landfill site. The use of incinerator is scarcely found. Only in few countries well managed composting plants could be observed. Some landfill sites and incinerating plant shave generated electricity, biogas, brickets etc. Some pointed research gaps in this field are waste management and biodiversity, medicinal and hazardous waste management, vermicomposting etc. It can be recommended that for the waste management public awareness, participation of locals, application of reduction, reuse and recycling concept, waste management inside house premise, modernization and scientific management of solid wastes. Further researches are needed in different aspects of waste and management for the complete solution.

Background: Tumours and tumour like lesions of the colon and rectum have overlapping clinical presentation and may be difficult to diagnose on clinical grounds alone. Histopathological examination although helpful to arrive at correct diagnosis, at times may be difficult and may require ancillary tests such as immunohistochemistry. Materials and Methods: A prospective cross sectional study enrolled 125 cases of colorectal biopsies after histopathological confirmation of tumours and tumour like lesions. The specimens were received at the Department of Pathology, of TUTH, from December 1, 2015 to November 30, 2016. Results: Out of 125 cases, 32 cases were benign tumours, 36 cases were malignant tumours and 57 cases were tumour like lesions. Most common age range was 51-60 years with mean age of 38 years. Males comprised 76.74% and females 23.26% with ratio of 3:1. Juvenile polyp was the commonest lesion. Among benign tumours, tubular adenoma was the most common (19.2%), adenocarcinoma was most common malignant tumour (25.6%) and juvenile polyp was the most common tumour like lesion (27.2%). Left side was most common side (66.67%) and rectum was the most common site (48.8%). Conclusions: The commonest indications for colorectal biopsies were tumours and tumour like lesions. Juvenile polyp was the most common tumour like lesion, tubular adenoma was the most common benign tumour and adenocarcinoma was the most common malignant tumour. Histopathological examination is a gold standard for confirmation of all tumour and tumours like lesions of colon and rectum.

Background: Transvaginal ultrasonography has increased the reliability of imaging diagnosis of women with endometrial pathologies and this technique has become widely used to evaluate endometrial thickness in women with postmenopausal bleeding. Materials and methods: 359 women presenting with history of at least three months amenorrhea were undergone transvaginal ultrasonography with measurement of endometrial thickness and uterine size. Endometrial biopsies were taken in 69 cases (19.2%) only. Results: The median age of patients was 53 years with the age range of 42 years to 81 years. Abdominal pain was the commonest symptoms followed by backache. 3/69 cases with histopathological diagnoses had normal sized uterus, while 66 cases had bulky (>6.0 cm) uterus. 58/69 cases showed > 5 mm thick endometrium and the endometrium was abnormal in 31/69 cases. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of transvaginal ultrasonography to detect abnormal endometrium were 91.2%, 22.9%, 53.4% and 72.7% respectively. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value and negative predictive value of transvaginal ultrasonography to detect endometrial hyperplasia and carcinoma were 100%, 17.5%, 10.3% and 100% respectively. Conclusions: Transvaginal sonographic evaluation of endometrial thickness and uterine size is useful for exclusion of endometrial pathology and to avoid unnecessary invasive surgical procedures.

The study was done from January to June of 2018 in Belbari Municipality with the aim to estimate the total waste production, quantity of biodegradable and non-biodegradable, some parameters of solid waste and to detect the common methods adopted in waste management and the relation of economic level in waste production and relation of the education level of people and their ideas or degree of satisfaction for the existing management system. Direct fieldwork was done for the quantification and sorting of the wastes. pH was tested according to Pathak (2017). The temperature was measured according to Daniel (1987) and moisture content by the method of Trautmann (1996). The total waste from Belbari Municipality produced per day was 17.500 tons. The waste contained 62.83% biodegradable and 37.17% nonbiodegradable. The moisture content of dumped wastes was 66.64%, the temperature was 3.33°C, higher than the atmosphere. The average pH of all months was 5.05. On the basis of Chi-square test, there was no relation between the economic level and type of wastes (Biodegradable and non-biodegradable) (p>0.05). The most of the respondents (48.5%) revealed that they manage the waste by dumping with cattle dung. On the basis of the Chi-square test, there was no relation between education level and opinion on the demand for new waste management project (p>0.05).

Background: Cutaneous granulomas comprise a wide spectrum of diseases that are frequently encountered. Since clinical assessment alone is insufficient in most of the cases, skin biopsies are a basic requisite in evaluating these lesions. Histopathological examination, although helpful in deciding the nature of granulomas and etiology in most of the cases, maybe noncontributory in some cases, thus requiring further ancillary tests such as microbial culture, polymerase chain reaction. Materials and Methods: This prospective cross sectional study enrolled 109 cases of skin biopsies after histopathological confirmation of granulomatous lesions. The specimens were received at the Department of Pathology from 14th April 2017 to 13th April 2018. Results: Out of 650 skin biopsies, 109 cases (16.8%) were diagnosed as granulomatous lesions on histology. Male predilection was noted and age group of 31 to 40 years was the commonest affected. Upper extremities were more commonly involved. Leprosy was the commonest etiological agent and tuberculoid granulomas were the commonest type based on their histology. Conclusions: Leprosy was the most common cause of cutaneous granuloma followed by Tuberculosis, fungal infection and foreign body reaction. Among the cases of leprosy, borderline tuberculoid leprosy and tuberculoid leprosy were the commonest subtype.

Background: The skin is a heterogeneous organ, capable of producing various types of skin tumors. The incidence of skin cancers, including melanoma and non-melanoma has been reported to have risen in many parts of the world. In Asian and African countries, individuals with pigmented races have a much lower incidence of skin cancers despite sunny hot weather. This study is aimed to analyze age, sex and site wise of distribution of skin cancers. Materials and Methods: The study included a total of 60 patients with histopathologically proven skin cancers from January 2015 to December 2018 in the department of pathology, DI skin health and referral centre, Kathmandu, Nepal. Results: A total of 60 cases of histopathologically proven skin cancer constituted 3.69% of total skin biopsies. Patient age ranged from 15 to 88 years with mean age being 61 years. The majority of the patients were in the age group of 61-70 yrs. The male to female ratio is 1:1.3. Basal cell carcinoma was the most common skin cancer constituting 43.4%, followed by squamous cell carcinoma (28.3%). The most common site of skin cancer is head & neck (73.3%), followed by lower extremities (8.3%). Other skin cancers were Bowen’s disease, melanoma, verrucous carcinoma, keratoacanthoma, trichilemmal carcinoma, extramammary Paget’s disease, Non-Hodgkin lymphoma and metastatic tumor. Conclusions: The most common type of skin cancer is basal cell carcinoma, followed by squamous cell carcinoma and head & neck being the commonest site.

Red ant is the most destructive insect pest of potato tubers in the field. Utilization of varietal resistance is the best option to control the pest. The resistance of five released and nine promising genotypes of potato were evaluated against red ant (Dorylus orientalis Westwood) under natural infestation in red ant prone field. Potato resistance was evaluated based on tuber damage index value (0.00 to 1) which was calculated on the bases of the percentage of damaged tubers and number of injuries on per kilogram of tubers made by the pest. Based on the results of combined data, the levels of varietal damage were categorized to be less damaged (TDI value ranging from 0.35 to 0.49), moderately damaged (TDI value ranging from 0.50to 0.64) and highly damaged (TDI value ranging from 0.65 to 0.79) types. Among the 14 genotypes compared for levels of tuber damage, the fivegenotypes: IPY-8 (TDI value: 0.35), Khumal Seto (TDI value: 0.39), PRP-056267.1 (TDI value: 0.40), Janak Dev (TDI value: 0.44) and PRP-25861.1 (TDI value: 0.49) were determined to be the less damaged types. The less damaged potato genotypes can be used by farmers as the relatively resistant genotypes against red ant.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.3126/jpn.v9i1.23172 Background: Skin diseases are very much prevalent in the developing countries. The pattern of skin diseases varies from country to country and even region to region within a country. The histological diagnosis is used by clinicians to aid in the management of patients & most appropriate clinical interventions. Materials and methods: The study included a total of 1040 skin biopsies from January 2016 to December 2018 in the department of pathology, DI skin health and referral centre, Kathmandu, Nepal. Results: The majority of the patients were in the age group of 31-40 years. The most common skin disease is non-infectious vesicobullous and vesicopustular disease (28.6%), followed by non-infectious erythematous papular and squamous disease (25.9%). The most common vesicobullous disease is spongiotic dermatitis (84.8%). Erythema dyschromicum perstans (31.8%) is the commonest non-infectious erythematous papular and squamous disease. The most common microbial disease is fungal infection, followed by leprosy. Among the neoplastic diseases of skin, tumors of epidermis are commonest diseases and the most common epidermal tumor is basal cell carcinoma. The commonest tumor of skin is melanocytic nevus. The most frequent site is upper extremities. Conclusions: Eczema is predominating non-infectious vesicobullous and vesicopustular disease. A relatively higher, prevalence of fungal infections was observed. Basal cell carcinoma is the commonest epidermal tumor and melanocytic nevus is commonest of all skin tumors. Keywords: Dermatitis; Papular; Spongiosis; Squamous lesion; Vesicobullous

The study was launched in 2017 in Dhankuta Municipality, mid hill region of Nepal. The area has been suffered from monkeys' activities for many years but detail study and management plan of overpopulated monkey have not been made yet. Questionnaire, focus group discussion, key informants survey, direct observation methods were used for collection of data. 45% of respondents observed monkeys group twice a day in their area and 40% of monkeys were from Salleri forest. The finding showed that human threated the monkey and monkey were also disturbing the human. Mostly (71%) was found threats to the monkey from human side. From the side of monkey major problem was crop loss (66%). The maximum victim persons from monkey (40) were adult female. Mostly raided crop was maize (29%) followed by rice (18%). Most of the respondents (35%) revealed that annual loss was US dollar 100 to 150. For the deterrent 52% used catapult. It was found that 38% respondents had left the fallow land due the negative impact of monkey. Most of the respondents (57%) opinioned that the monkeys of that area should be translocated to other places. Some (22%) suggested killing would be the best policy.

Malignant melanoma, the most aggressive form of skin cancer worldwide is much often talked about in the western world and in Caucasian population as it is seen to be a rare disease in South Asians. This study aims to provide a better assessment on the spectrum of cutaneous melanomas in our context.This was a retrospective, 11-year hospital-based study done in the Department of Pathology, Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital. The data collected included age, sex, anatomical site, Breslow thickness in millimeter, Clark's level of invasion, presence of ulceration, Tumor infiltrating lymphocytes and melanoma subtypes. The anova test was used to compare the relationship between age and staging, whereas pearson's chi square test was used to determine the relationships of sex and histopathological subtype with staging.Out of total, 44 cases of primary cutaneous melanoma were seen, 23 (52.27%) were males and 21 (47.27%) were females. The mean age was 61.29 year with the majority in the age groups 61-70 and 71-80 comprising 11 cases each (25%). Lower extremity was the most frequent site (23 cases, 52.27 %). The largest group (18 cases) was composed of Nodular melanoma, followed by acral melanoma (17 cases). Nodular melanoma tended to occur at a higher stage than other types. Age and sex showed no correlation with staging. A significant association was found with histopathological type.Primary melanoma is a commonly encountered malignancy. It is commomly appreciated equally among both gender among elderly populations. Nodular melanoma present late and is the commonest variety with lower extremity being the commonest site Keywords: Breslow thickness; clark's level; cutaneous melanoma; nodular melanoma.

Seven tomato varieties, Ahmita, BL-410, Ceres, Dalila, Makish, Srijana and Winsari were evaluated for physicochemical properties and fruit yield under plastic house condition during rainy seasons of two consecutive years 2012 and 2013 at the Regional Agriculture Research Station, Lumle, Kaski . The experiment was laid out in a complete randomized block design with four replications. The physicochemical analyses revealed that BL-410 had the highest total soluble solid (5.22 oBx) while Srijana had the highest tritrable acidity (0.903%) and vitamic C content (32.32 mg/100 g). It showed that Srijana was the most useful variety from nutritional perspective. BL-410 took least time to flowering (22.00 days), fruiting (28.00 days) and first harvesting (72.00 days) after transplanting. Ahmita produced maximum number of fruits per cluster (8.43). Ceres produced largest size (122.0 g) fruit while Winsari measured the tallest plant (120.5). Winsari produced highest marketable yield (105.8 t ha-1). Thus, it has been recommended for commercial production. Srijana, which has highest nutritional value needs to be promoted with increasing its productivity.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/njst.v15i2.12106 Nepal Journal of Science and Technology Vol. 15, No.2 (2014) 17-22

Background: Coronary atherosclerosis is the major cause of death worldwide. Lifestyle and habits are the major contributory factor in the development of coronary atherosclerosis. Materials and Methods: This is an autopsy-based study in which 45 autopsy cases were randomly selected for study. Proximal one third of all three epicardial coronary arteries (LAD, LCX and RCA) were dissected out for study and serial sections were made and stained with H&E method and under the light microscope. Atherosclerosis was graded according to American heart association classification. The risk factors (cigarette smoking, hypertension, diabetes, alcohol consumption, age, sex) were also correlated with the grade of atherosclerosis. Results: Seventy-Eight percent of American Heart Association classification grade V lesions were seen in > 70 yrs of age. Almost all cases of > 70 yrs of age had American Heart Association classification grade > IV lesions. Out of all grade IV lesions, 88.9% was seen in male while only 11.1% in female. Similarly out of all grade V lesions, 77.8% was seen in male while 22.2% in female. LAD showed maximum involvement by higher grade lesion, followed by LCX and RCA. American Heart Association classification grade > IV in LAD, LCX and RCA was seen in 25(55.6%), 5(11.1%), and 3(6.7%) cases respectively. Conclusion: Higher grade lesion occurs in advancing age. Various cardiovascular risk factors were significantly associated with higher grade of lesions. The multiple risk factors had a synergistic effect on the progression of coronary atherosclerosis. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/jpn.v4i8.11492 Journal of Pathology of Nepal; Vol.4,No8(2014) 607-611

Malignant teratoid medulloepithelioma is an uncommon unilateral intraocular tumor,occuring typically in children. This report concerns a 4-year-old boy, who presentedwith loss of vision, pain and proptosis of the left eye and showed mass in betweeneyelids. Histopathologically, the tumor was composed of pseudostratified primitive-appearing epithelium dispersed in cords, strands, tubules & glands, which wereseparated by a cystic spaces, filled with pale eosinophilic material. Foci of glial tissue,cartilage , bone, skeletal muscle and fatty tissue were recognized. In addition, scleralextension of tumor, Homer-Wright like and Flexner-Wintersteiner like rosettes andfoci of necrosis were also present. The differentiation from retinoblastoma wasdiscussed.Key Words: Malignant medulloepithelioma, eyeball, heteroplasia.

Gastric adenocarcinoma is of major importance worldwide as a cause of death from malignant disease. It is the commonest malignant tumor in T.U. Teaching Hospital. Helicobacter pylori infection is an important risk factor for the development of gastric cancer. This prospective study was carried out to correlate H. pylori infection with gastric adenocarcinoma. This study was done from January 1999 to January 2000; included 38 cases of gastric adenocarcinomas of which 28 (73.69%) cases were tubular type; 6 (15.79%) cases were signet-ring cell type; 2 (5.26%) cases were papillary type and 2 (5.26%) cases were mucinous type. Gastric adenocarcinomas were more common in male (73.68%) and after the age of 50 years. Giemsa staining revealed H. pylori in 30 cases (78.95%) of adenocarcinomas; whereas H. pylori seropositivity (IgG) was found in 29 (76.31%) cases. H. pylori were histologically detected in 88.3% cases of resected specimens and in 71.4% cases of endoscopic gastric biopsies. Both histological method and serological test showed positivity for H. pylori in 65.78% cases. Thus, H. pylori infection is associated with gastric carcinognesis Key Words: Gastric adenocarcinoma, Helicobacter pylori, Giemsa stain.

This is a retrospective study of fine needle aspiration cytology of breast lesions performed between May 1998 and April 2000. During this period, a total of 2001 fine needle aspirations were done in the Tribhuvan Universtiy Teaching Hospital (TUTH), of which 470 (23.48 %) were of the breast. Fibrocystic disease found to be the most frequent and was diagnosed in 183 cases (38.9%). Fibroadenoma was the third common pathological condition, numbering 61 (12.9%). Malignant conditions of the breast were 72 cases (15.3%). During these two years, histological diagnosis was available in 154 cases. Histological examination revealed benign conditions in 74 cases (48%), malignancy in 59 cases (38.3%) and inflammatory & lactational changes in 21 cases (13.7%). Out of these 154 cases, 71 cases had also undergone fine needle aspiration cytology. The 36 cases diagnosed as benign cytologically, 34 cases were also benign histologically, whereas 2 cases turned out to be malignant. Out of 37 cases that were histologically malignant, on cytology 35 cases were diagnosed as malignant. The sensitivity and specificity of cytopathological diagnosis for breast lesions was 100% and 94.6% respectively. Inflammatory lesions correlated well cytologically and histolgically. FNAC is a safe and rapid diagnostic method for evaluation of various lesions. However, there are possibilities of false negative and false positive results because of wide range of appearance of breast lesions. Key Words: Breast lumps, Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology, Benign Lesions, Malignant Lesions, Histopathology and Correlation.