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In this paper, we investigate the crosscap of 3-annihilating-ideal hypergraph 3 (R) of a commutative ring R and the topological embedding of 3 (R) to the nonorientable compact surfaces. Furthermore, we determine all Artinian commutative non-local rings R (up to isomorphism) such that 3 (R) is a projective graph. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Let R be a commutative ring with identity and I ∗ (R) , the set of all nontrivial proper ideals of R. The intersection graph of ideals of R , denoted by ℐ (R) , is a simple undirected graph with vertex set as the set I ∗ (R) , and, for any two distinct vertices I and J are adjacent if and only if I ∩ J ≠ (0). In this paper, we study some connections between commutative ring theory and graph theory by investigating topological properties of intersection graph of ideals. In particular, it is shown that for any nonlocal Artinian ring R , ℐ (R) is a projective graph if and only if R ≅ R 1 × F 1 , where R 1 is a local principal ideal ring with maximal ideal 𝔪 1 of nilpotency three and F 1 is a field. Furthermore, it is shown that for an Artinian ring R , γ ¯ (ℐ (R)) = 2 if and only if R ≅ R 1 × R 2 , where each R i (1 ≤ i ≤ 2) is a local principal ideal ring with maximal ideal 𝔪 i ≠ (0) such that 𝔪 i 2 = (0). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The lowest iso -energetic conformers of DTT were identified as G′TG′1 and G′TT. • Its configurational isomers were observed to have higher energy than G′TG′1/G′TT. • Experimental Vibrational spectra were found in good agreement with the G′TG′1. • Both OH and SH groups engaged in intramolecular H-bonds. • These intramolecular interactions are responsible for the stability of DTT. A total of seven minimum energy geometries were obtained on exploring the conformational landscape of dithiothreitol (DTT) by varying the prominent dihedral angles in the molecule through a relaxed scan with a step size of 5° at B3LYP/cc-pVTZ with further geometry optimization at CCSD/cc-pVDZ level of theory. Single point energies were calculated for all the conformers at CCSD(T)/CBS limit with cc-pVNZ (N = T, Q) level of theory and revealed the similar energy pattern. The two conformers, namely G′TG′1 and G′TT, were found iso -energic even though they differed in their structure significantly and were of the lowest energy compared to others. Energies corresponding to the cyclic as well as other configurational counterpart of the global minimum were found much higher in energy compared to the global minimum structure. Intramolecular sulfur centered hydrogen bond was seen to stabilize the global minimum structure of DTT as revealed by AIM, NBO, FMO and ESP charge analysis. Computed NMR of DTT matched well with the experimental data gleaned from the literature. Vibrational spectra (Raman and IR) were measured and compared with computed normal modes of DTT, which were found in good agreement [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on a study which examined the defect levels in high-efficiency , cadmium sulphide/copper-indium-selenium[sub2] thin film solar cells. Information on thin-film solar cells; Methodology; Results and discussion.

In addition to being effective and easy to learn how to use, the ideal laryngoscope should be associated with minimal reduction in skill performance during gaps in practice over time. We compared the time taken to intubate the trachea of a manikin by novice medical students immediately after training, and then after 1 month, with no intervening practice. We designed a two-period, four-group, randomised, cross-over trial to compare the Macintosh, Venner(™) A.P. Advance(™) with difficult airway blade, C-MAC(®) with D-Blade and Airtraq(®) with wireless video-viewer. A bougie was used to aid intubation with the Macintosh and the C-MAC. After training, there was no significant difference in median (IQR [range]) intubation time using the videolaryngoscopes compared with the Macintosh, which took 30 (26.5-35 [12-118])s. One month later, the intubation time was longer using the C-MAC (41 (29.5-52 [20-119])s; p = 0.002) and A.P. Advance (40 (28.5-57.5 [21-107])s; p = 0.0003)m compared with the Macintosh (27 (21-29 [16-90])s); there was no difference using the Airtraq (27 (20.5-32.5 [15-94])s; p = 0.258) compared with the Macintosh. While skill acquisition after a brief period of learning and practice was equal for each laryngoscope, performance levels differed after 1 month without practice. In particular, the consistency of performance using the C-MAC and A.P. Advance was worse compared with the Macintosh and the Airtraq. While the clinical significance of this is doubtful, we believe that reliable and consistent performance at laryngoscopy is desirable; for the devices that we tested, this requires regular practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research on the agricultural impacts of climate change has primarily focused on the roles of temperature and precipitation. These studies show that India has already been negatively affected by recent climate trends. However, anthropogenic climate changes are a result of both global emissions of long-lived greenhouse gases (LLGHGs) and other short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs). Two potent SLCPs, tropospheric ozone and black carbon, have direct effects on crop yields beyond their indirect effects through climate; emissions of black carbon and ozone precursors have risen dramatically in India over the past three decades. Here, to our knowledge for the first time, we present results of the combined effects of climate change and the direct effects of SLCPs on wheat and rice yields in India from 1980 to 2010. Our statistical model suggests that, averaged over India, yields in 2010 were up to 36% lower for wheat than they otherwise would have been, absent climate and pollutant emissions trends, with some densely populated states experiencing 50% relative yield losses. [Our point estimates for rice (-20%) are similarly large, but not statistically significant.] Upper-bound estimates suggest that an overwhelming fraction (90%) of these losses is due to the direct effects of SLCPs. Gains from addressing regional air pollution could thus counter expected future yield losses resulting from direct climate change effects of LLGHGs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recentlywe showed that the binding energy of the benzene...acetylenecomplex could be tuned up to 5 kcal/mol by substituting the hydrogenatoms of the benzene molecule with multiple electron-donating/electron-withdrawinggroups (J. Chem. Theory Comput.2012, 8, 1935). In continuation, we have here examinedthe influence of various substituents on the CH...π interactionpresent in the benzene...methane complex using the CCSD(T) methodat the complete basis set limit. The influence of multiple fluorosubstituents on the interaction strength of the benzene...methanecomplex was found to be insignificant, while the interaction strengthlinearly increases with successive addition of methyl groups. Theinfluence of other substituents such as CN, NO2, COOH,Cl, and OH was found to be negligible. The NH2group enhancesthe binding strength similarly to the methyl group. Energy decompositionanalysis predicts the dispersion energy component to be on an averagethree times larger than the electrostatic energy component. Multidimensionalcorrelation analysis shows that the exchange-repulsion and dispersionterms are correlated very well with the interaction distance (r) and with a combination of the interaction distance (r) and molar refractivity (MR), while the electrostaticcomponent correlates well when the Hammett constant is used in combinationwith the interaction distance (r). Various recentlydeveloped DFT methods were used to assess their ability to predictthe binding energy of various substituted benzene...methane complexes,and the M06-2X, B97-D, and B3LYP-D3 methods were found to be the bestperformers, giving a mean absolute deviation of ∼0.15 kcal/mol. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilization of energy produced in an internal combustion (IC) engine plays a key role in improving engine performance. Thermal Barrier Coating (TBC) is one of the effective engine modification methods to utilize the energy effectively in an IC engine. The alternative fuels with very poor fuel properties can be fuelled successfully in a TBC mode. In this study, an investigation was carried out in a TBC, single-cylinder, diesel engine fuelled with waste cooking oil-diesel blend. In the first phase, the waste cooking oil methyl ester (WCOME) is fuelled in the standard engine for the performance, combustion and emission characteristics. In the second phase, the WCOME blend with diesel to an appropriate percentage of 20% by volume (WCOMEB20) and tested in the standard engine for the characteristics. In the third phase, the standard engine is converted to TBC mode. The engine combustion chamber components such as piston crown, cylinder head, inlet and exhaust valve were coated with bond coat nickel, chromium, aluminium alloy (NiCrAl) thickness 100 microns and ceramic coat of 8% yttria stabilized zirconia (8%YSZ) with a thickness of 200 microns. In the fourth phase, the WCOMEB20 was fuelled in the TBC mode for the characteristics and finally, the results were compared. From the experimental result, it was come known that WCOMEB20 showed betterment in the fuel properties such as viscosity, density, and cetane index compare with the neat WCOME. The substantial improvement in the performance and exhaust emissions such as carbon monoxide (CO), unburnt hydrocarbon (UHC), and smoke opacity with WCOMEB20 compared with neat WCOME. Furthermore, the TBC mode fuelled with WCOMEB20 experienced a supreme enhancement in the performance, combustion and emission except nitric oxide (NO). This improvement was due to the betterment in the fuel properties with WCOMEB20 and high in-cylinder temperature with TBC which enhanced the combustion and reduce the unburnt charges present inside the combustion chamber. From the above finding, it was concluded that WCOMEB20 fuelled with TBC mode was an effective fuel and engine modification technique to improve the performance, combustion and emission characteristics of a diesel engine. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Environmental pollution and fossil fuel depletion are the major concerns in the present situation. Researchers have tried various biofuels for compression ignition (CI) engine in order to overcome these problems. Waste cooking oil (WCO) was found to be suitable alternate fuel for CI engine because of their huge availability, economically cheaper and renewable capability. However, WCO has poor fuel properties which led to inferior combustion in CI engine. Due to inferior combustion, engine performance was poor, engine exhaust emissions were higher. In this experimental work, different techniques were adopted to improve the performance of CI engine using WCO, as the base fuel. WCO was collected in bulk from a restaurant and used for the entire research work. A single cylinder, four stroke, direct injection, water cooled CI engine was used for this research work. In the first phase of work, experiments were conducted using diesel, WCO as fuel and kept as baseline data. WCO was converted into waste cooking oil biodiesel (WCOB) through transesterification process and conducted experiments using WCOB in the second phase of this work. In the third phase of the work, copper oxide nanofluids were prepared by wet chemical method in four mass concentrations, blended with WCOB and experiments were conducted. Finally, all the experimental outputs from various techniques were compared and analysed. It was observed that WCO produced lower brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and higher exhaust emissions than diesel. In the second phase, BTE was improved while using WCOB as compared to WCO. HC, CO emissions and smoke opacity were reduced. But nitric oxide (NOx) emission was found to be increased as compared to WCO. It was noted that BTE was improved further while using copper oxide nanofluids blended with WCOB. Emissions and smoke were drastically reduced as compared to WCOB and WCO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Carbonaceous aerosols (CA) emitted by fossil and biomass fuels consist of black carbon (BC), a strong absorber of solar radiation, and organic matter (OM). OM scatters as well as absorbs solar radiation. The absorbing component of OM, which is ignored in most climate models, is referred to as brown carbon (BrC). Model estimates of the global CA radiative forcing range from 0 to 0.7 Wm-2, to be compared with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's estimate for the pre-lndustrial to the present net radiative forcing of about 1.6 Wm-2. This study provides a model-independent, observationally based estimate of the CA direct radiative forcing. Ground-based aerosol netvvork data is integrated with field data and satellite-based aerosol observations to provide a decadal (2001 through 2009) global view of the CA optical properties and direct radiative forcing. The estimated global CA direct radiative effect is about 0.75 Wm-2 (0.5 to 1.0). This study identifies the global importance of BrC, which is shown to contribute about 20% to 550-nm CA solar absorption globally. Because of the inclusion of BrC, the net effect of OM is close to zero and the CA forcing is nearly equal to that of BC. The CA direct radiative forcing is estimated to be about 0.65 (0.5 to about 0.8) Wm-2, thus comparable to or exceeding that by methane. Caused in part by BrC absorption, CAs have a net warming effect even over open biomass-burning regions in Africa and the Amazon. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate model simulations suggest that the extratropical storm tracks will shift poleward as a consequence of global warming. In this study the northern and southern hemisphere storm tracks over the Pacific and Atlantic ocean basins are studied using observational data, primarily from the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project, ISCCP. Potential shifts in the storm tracks are examined using the observed cloud structures as proxies for cyclone activity. Different data analysis methods are employed, with the objective to address difficulties and uncertainties in using ISCCP data for regional trend analysis. In particular, three data filtering techniques are explored; excluding specific problematic regions from the analysis, regressing out a spurious viewing geometry effect, and excluding specific cloud types from the analysis. These adjustments all, to varying degree, moderate the cloud trends in the original data but leave the qualitative aspects of those trends largely unaffected. Therefore, our analysis suggests that ISCCP data can be used to interpret regional trends in cloudiness, provided that data and instrumental artefacts are recognized and accounted for. The variation in magnitude between trends emerging from application of different data correction methods, allows us to estimate possible ranges for the observational changes. It is found that the storm tracks, here represented by the extent of the midlatitude-centered band of maximum cloud cover over the studied ocean basins, experience a poleward shift as well as a narrowing over the 25 year period covered by ISCCP. The observed magnitudes of these effects are larger than in current generation climate models (CMIP3). The magnitude of the shift is particularly large in the northern hemisphere Atlantic. This is also the one of the four regions in which imperfect data primarily prevents us from drawing firm conclusions. The shifted path and reduced extent of the storm track cloudiness is accompanied by a regional reduction in total cloud cover. This decrease in cloudiness can primarily be ascribed to low level clouds, whereas the upper level cloud fraction actually increases, according to ISCCP. Independent satellite observations of radiative fluxes at the top of the atmosphere are consistent with the changes in total cloud cover. The shift in cloudiness is also supported by a shift in central position of the mid-troposphere meridional temperature gradient. We do not find support for aerosols playing a significant role in the satellite observed changes in cloudiness. The observed changes in storm track cloudiness can be related to local cloud-induced changes in radiative forcing, using ERBE and CERES radiative fluxes. The shortwave and the longwave components are found to act together, leading to a positive (warming) net radiative effect in response to the cloud changes in the storm track regions, indicative of positive cloud feedback. Among the CMIP3 models that simulate poleward shifts in all four storm track areas, all but one show decreasing cloud amount on a global mean scale in response to increased CO forcing, further consistent with positive cloud feedback. Models with low equilibrium climate sensitivity to a lesser extent than higher-sensitivity models simulate a poleward shift of the storm tracks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research indicates that monsoon rainfall became less frequent but more intense in India during the latter half of the Twentieth Century, thus increasing the risk of drought and flood damage to the country's wet-season ( kharif) rice crop. Our statistical analysis of state-level Indian data confirms that drought and extreme rainfall negatively affected rice yield (harvest per hectare) in predominantly rainfed areas during 1966-2002, with drought having a much greater impact than extreme rainfall. Using Monte Carlo simulation, we find that yield would have been 1.7% higher on average if monsoon characteristics, especially drought frequency, had not changed since 1960. Yield would have received an additional boost of nearly 4% if two other meteorological changes (warmer nights and lower rainfall at the end of the growing season) had not occurred. In combination, these changes would have increased cumulative harvest during 1966-2002 by an amount equivalent to about a fifth of the increase caused by improvements in farming technology. Climate change has evidently already negatively affected India's hundreds of millions of rice producers and consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study simulates optical depth of marine warm clouds for year 2001 based on interactively predicted aerosol concentrations with a global chemical transport model (CTM) driven by the ERA-40 re-analysis meteorological data. The simulated aerosol and cloud droplet number concentrations (CDNC) largely reproduce the variations between polluted and pristine marine environment as revealed by surface and aircraft measurements. By constraining cloud liquid water path (CLWP) with satellite microwave measurements, the simulated global and southern hemispheric aerosol optical depth (AOD) and cloud optical depth (COD) are well within 10% of the observed values. As a result of larger anthropogenic aerosol loadings over the northern oceans, the simulated CDNC and COD are, respectively, by 51 and 18% higher than those over the southern oceans, while the column-averaged droplet effective radius is 13% smaller. These simulated interhemispheric differences, while qualitatively consistent with satellite observations, are larger than the observations. Inclusion of drizzle effect improved the disparities but not entirely. The constrained CTM generally captures the seasonality in AOD and CLWP observations, and demonstrates that annual cycle of COD is dominated by CLWP. During winter monsoon the simulated and observed COD correlate more strongly with changes in AOD over the N. Indian Ocean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) warm the surface and the atmosphere with significant implications for rainfall, retreat of glaciers and sea ice, sea level, among other factors. About 30 years ago, it was recognized that the increase in tropospheric ozone from air pollution (NO x , CO and others) is an important greenhouse forcing term. In addition, the recognition of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on stratospheric ozone and its climate effects linked chemistry and climate strongly. What is less recognized, however, is a comparably major global problem dealing with air pollution. Until about ten years ago, air pollution was thought to be just an urban or a local problem. But new data have revealed that air pollution is transported across continents and ocean basins due to fast long-range transport, resulting in trans-oceanic and trans-continental plumes of atmospheric brown clouds (ABCs) containing sub micron size particles, i.e., aerosols. ABCs intercept sunlight by absorbing as well as reflecting it, both of which lead to a large surface dimming. The dimming effect is enhanced further because aerosols may nucleate more cloud droplets, which makes the clouds reflect more solar radiation. The dimming has a surface cooling effect and decreases evaporation of moisture from the surface, thus slows down the hydrological cycle. On the other hand, absorption of solar radiation by black carbon and some organics increase atmospheric heating and tend to amplify greenhouse warming of the atmosphere. ABCs are concentrated in regional and mega-city hot spots. Long-range transport from these hot spots causes widespread plumes over the adjacent oceans. Such a pattern of regionally concentrated surface dimming and atmospheric solar heating, accompanied by widespread dimming over the oceans, gives rise to large regional effects. Only during the last decade, we have begun to comprehend the surprisingly large regional impacts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The observed increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) since the preindustrial era has most likely committed the world to a warming of 2.4°C (1.4°C to 4.3°C) above the preindustrial surface temperatures. The committed warming is inferred from the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates of the greenhouse forcing and climate sensitivity. The estimated warming of 2.4°C is the equilibrium warming above preindustrial temperatures that the world will observe even if GHG concentrations are held fixed at their 2005 concentration levels but without any other anthropogenic forcing such as the cooling effect of aerosols. The range of 1.4°C to 4.3°C in the committed warming overlaps and surpasses the currently perceived threshold range of 1°C to 3°C for dangerous anthropogenic interference with many of the climate-tipping elements such as the summer arctic sea ice, Himalayan-Tibetan glaciers, and the Greenland Ice Sheet. IPCC models suggest that `°!25% (0.6°C) of the committed warming has been realized as of now. About 90% or more of the rest of the committed warming of 1.6°C will unfold during the 21st century. determined by the rate of the unmasking of the aerosol cooling effect by air pollution abatement laws and by the rate of release of the GHGs-forcing stored in the oceans. The accompanying sea-level rise can continue for more than several centuries. Lastly, even the most aggressive CO2 mitigation steps as envisioned now can only limit further additions to the committed warming, but not reduce the already committed GHGs warming of 2.4°C. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Fluorescence excitation (FE) and dispersed fluorescence (DF) spectra for S1 ↔S0 transitions of 1-methoxynaphthalene have been studied in a supersonic free jet expansion. Vibronic bands corresponding to only one isomer dominate the FE spectrum, and by theoretical calculation we have assigned the species to the minimum energy trans-conformer. Complete assignment of the vibronic bands displayed in the DF spectrum measured following excitation of the origin has been suggested. The DF spectra of other vibronic bands show signatures of extensive vibronic mode mixing in the S1 state. The measured spectral features have been compared to 1-hydroxynaphthalene and assignments suggested in earlier studies for the vibronic bands in the DF spectrum have been reviewed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Aerosol- and moonsoon-related droughts and floods are two of the most serious environmental hazards confronting more than 60% of the population of the world living in the Asian monsoon countries. In recent years, thanks to improved satellite and in situ observations, and better models, great strides have been made in aerosol and monsoon research, respectively. There is now a growing body of evidence suggesting that interaction of aerosol forcing with monsoon dynamics may alter the redistribution of energy in the atmosphere and at the Earth's surface, thereby influencing monsoon water cycle and climate. In this article, the authors describe the scientific rationale and challenges for an integrated approach to study tbe interactions between aerosol and monsoon water cycle dynamics. A Joint Aerosol-Monsoon Experiment (JAMEX) is proposed for 2007-11, with enhanced observations of the physical and chemical properties, sources and sinks, and long-range transport of aerosols, in conjunction with meteorological and océanographie observations in the Indo-Pacific continental and oceanic regions. JAMEX will leverage on coordination among many ongoing and planned national research programs on aerosols and monsoons in China, India, Japan, Nepal, Italy, and the United States, as well as international research programs of the World Climate Research Program (WCRP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies have found that atmospheric brown clouds partially offset the warming effects of greenhouse gases. This finding suggests a tradeoff between the impacts of reducing emissions of aerosols and greenhouse gases. Results from a statistical model of historical rice harvests in India, coupled with regional climate scenarios from a parallel climate model, indicate that joint reductions in brown clouds and greenhouse gases would in fact have complementary, positive impacts on harvests. The results also imply that adverse climate changes due to brown clouds and greenhouse gases contributed to the slowdown in harvest growth that occurred during the past two decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Laser-induced fluorescence excitation and dispersed fluorescence spectra of phenetole have been measured in a cold supersonic jet expansion. The spectral features reveal the presence of only one conformer of the molecule in the environment of the jet, and the finding is consistent with the quantum chemistry predicted relative stability and conformational isomerization barriers of different isomers. The vibronic bands in the dispersed fluorescence spectra have been assigned fully with the aid of the normal mode frequencies predicted by density functional theoretical calculation. The geometry in the S1 state has been optimized and the excited state vibrational frequencies have been calculated by CASSCF method. The theoretical results have been used to interpret the measured spectra. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the equatorial Indian Ocean have warmed by about 0.6–0.8 K since the 1950s, accompanied by very little warming or even a slight cooling trend over the northern Indian Ocean (NIO). It is reported that this differential trend has resulted in a substantial weakening of the meridional SST gradient from the equatorial region to the South Asian coast during summer, to the extent that the gradient has nearly vanished recently. Based on simulations with the Community Climate Model Version 3 (CCM3), it is shown that the summertime weakening in the SST gradient weakens the monsoon circulation, resulting in less monsoon rainfall over India and excess rainfall in sub-Saharan Africa. The observed trend in SST is decomposed into a hypothetical uniform warming and a reduction in the meridional gradient. The uniform warming of the tropical Indian Ocean in the authors’ simulations increases the Indian summer monsoon rainfall by 1–2 mm day-1, which is opposed by a larger drying tendency due to the weakening of the SST gradient. The net effect is to decrease the Indian monsoon rainfall, while preventing the sub-Saharan region from becoming too dry. Published coupled ocean–atmosphere model simulations are used to describe the competing effects of the anthropogenic radiative forcing due to greenhouse gases and the anthropogenic South Asian aerosols on the observed SST gradient and the monsoon rainfall. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine the impact of the Atmospheric Brown Clouds on the direct radiative forcing of the Himalayan foothills and the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) regions, home for over 500 million S. Asians. The NASA-Terra MODIS satellite data reveal an extensive layer of aerosols covering the entire IGP and Himalayan foothills region with seasonal mean AODs of about 0.4 to 0.5 in the visible wavelengths (0.55 micron), which fall among the largest seasonal mean dry season AODs for the tropics. We show new surface data which reveal the presence of strongly absorbing aerosols that lead to a large reduction in solar radiation fluxes at the surface during the October to May period. The three-year mean (2001 to 2003) October to May seasonal and diurnal average reduction in surface solar radiation for the IGP region is about 32 (±5) W m−2 (about 10% of TOA insolation or 20% of surface insolation). The forcing efficiency (forcing per unit optical depth) is as large as −27% (note that the forcing is negative) of top-of-atmosphere (TOA) solar insolation, and exceeds the forcing efficiency that has been observed for other polluted regions in America, Africa, East Asia, and Europe. General circulation model sensitivity studies suggest that both the local and remote influence of the aerosol induced radiative forcing is to strengthen the lower atmosphere inversion, stabilize the boundary layer, amplify the climatological tendency for a drier troposphere, and decrease evaporation. These aerosol-induced changes could potentially increase the life times of aerosols, make them more persistent, and decrease their single scattering albedos, thus potentially leading to a detrimental positive feedback between aerosol concentrations, aerosol forcing, and aerosol persistence. In addition, both the model studies and observations of pan evaporation suggest that the reduction in surface solar radiation may have led to a reduction in surface evaporation of moisture. These results suggest the vulnerability of this vital region to air pollution related direct and indirect (through climate changes) impacts on agricultural productivity of the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Asian emissions of fossil fuel SO2 and black carbon increased ≈6-fold since 1930, resulting in large atmospheric concentrations of black carbon and other aerosols. This period also witnessed strong negative trends of surface solar radiation, surface evaporation, and summer monsoon rainfall. These changes over India were accompanied by an increase in atmospheric stability and a decrease in sea surface temperature gradients in the Northern Indian Ocean. We conducted an ensemble of coupled ocean- atmosphere simulations from 1930 to 2000 to understand the role of atmospheric brown clouds in the observed trends. The simulations adopt the aerosol radiative forcing from the Indian Ocean experiment observations and also account for global increases in greenhouse gases and sulfate aerosols. The simulated decreases in surface solar radiation, changes in surface and atmospheric temperatures over land and sea, and decreases in monsoon rainfall are similar to the observed trends. We also show that greenhouse gases and sulfates, by themselves, do not account for the magnitude or even the sign in many instances, of the observed trends. Thus, our simulations suggest that absorbing aerosols in atmospheric brown clouds may have played a major role in the observed regional climate and hydrological cycle changes and have masked as much as 50% of the surface warming due to the global increase in greenhouse gases. The simulations also raise the possibility that, if current trends in emissions continue, the subcontinent may experience a doubling of the drought frequency in the coming decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Deposition of atmospheric aerosols by precipitation is investigated by assimilating near-global 3-hourly precipitation estimates from satellites at 0.25° resolution into a global chemical transport model. Simulations of 21 d duration during February 2002 are performed where satellite observations of surface rain rate are incorporated into the computation of the aerosol removal rate. A steady source of a tracer simulating a soluble aerosol species is imposed on the bottom layer of the model over the Indian Subcontinent at a rate of 0.08μg m−2 s−1. The impacts of wet deposition by observed precipitation patterns upon regional-scale and global-scale transport of aerosols are examined. The results are compared with a model simulation where wet deposition has been turned off and a simulation which uses model-simulated precipitation to compute wet deposition. Observed precipitation patterns are responsible for reducing aerosol amounts over the Indian Ocean basin by about 25% compared with a case with no wet deposition. Over the remainder of the Northern Hemisphere the aerosol amounts are reduced by nearly 80%. Precipitation in the region of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) acts as an effective barrier to the transport of aerosol to the Southern Hemisphere. Virtually all of the wet deposition over the Indian Ocean occurs in grid cells experiencing rain rates of less than 1 mm h−1, even though these events account for only 20% of the total precipitation observed in the region. Light-rain events to the north of the ITCZ occur frequently enough, and scavenge aerosol efficiently enough, to remove much of the aerosol before southward-moving air masses reach the ITCZ. Model-simulated precipitation over the Indian Ocean occurs more frequently than observed by satellite, by as much as 50%, and is characterized by more drizzle events and fewer heavy-rain events than observed. The differences in simulated and observed rain rate distributions result in only a 6% difference in aerosol amount over the Indian Ocean, and an 8% difference over the remainder of the Northern Hemisphere. Satellite observations also reveal that rain events covering more than 80% of the horizontal area of a model grid cell occur up to an order of magnitude more frequently than predicted by a common parametrization of precipitation scavenging. A test of wet deposition based on the observed spatial coverage of surface precipitation suggests that incorrect assumptions about the physical sizes of rain events may result in as much as a factor of 2 over-estimate of the amount of aerosol transported out of the South Asia region to the remainder of the Northern Hemisphere in global atmospheric transport models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A simple moist model for the large-scale tropical atmospheric circulation is constructed by combining the simple models of Gill and Neelin and Held. The model describes the first baroclinic mode of the moist troposphere with variable "gross moist stability" in response to given thermodynamic forcing from surface evaporation and atmospheric cloud radiative forcing (CRF), which is a measure of the radiative effects of clouds in the atmospheric radiative heating. When the present model is forced solely by the observed atmospheric CRF, quantitatively reasonable Hadley and Walker circulations are obtained, such as the trades, the ascending branches in the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) and the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ), as well as the descending branches in the cold tongue and subtropics. However, when the model is forced only by the observed surface evaporation, the Walker circulation totally disappears, and the Hadley circulation reverses. These results indicate that, in the context of a moist dynamic model, the spatial variations of atmospheric CRF are more important in terms of driving and maintaining the Hadley and Walker circulations than the spatial variation of surface evaporation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aerosols are regionally concentrated and are subject to large temporal variations, even on interannual timescales. In this study, the focus is on the observed large interannual variability of the South Asian (SA) haze, estimating the corresponding variations in its radiative forcing, and using a general circulation model to study their impacts on global climate variability. The SA haze is a widespread haze, covering most of South Asia and the northern Indian Ocean during December–April. The southernmost extent of the haze varies year to year from about 10°S to about 5°N. In order to understand the impact of this interannual variation in the haze forcing, two numerical studies were conducted with two extreme locations of the forcing: 1) extended haze forcing (EHF) and 2) shrunk haze forcing (SHF). The former has the forcing extending to 10°S, while the latter is confined to regions north of the equator. Each of the two haze forcing simulations was implemented into a 3D global climate model (NCAR CCM3) with a prescribed SST seasonal cycle to estimate the sensitivity of the model climate to the aerosol forcing area. In both simulations, the haze forcing was prescribed only during the dry season between November and April. Over India where the forcing is centered, the simulated climate changes are very similar between EHF and SHF. In remote regions, however, the responses differ remarkably. Focusing on the remote effects of the haze, it is shown that some of the recent observed boreal-wintertime changes of the southwest Asian monsoon, El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and the Arctic Oscillation (AO) could be explained by the SA haze forcing and its fluctuation. First, both simulations reveal the wintertime drought over southwest Asia, with the EHF generating far more severe drought. Second, the EHF experiment simulates a poleward shift of the Northern Hemisphere (NH) zonal-mean zonal momentum during the winter season, while the... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of the south Asian haze on the regional climate are assessed using the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model version 3 (CCM3) at the T42/L18 resolution. This haze, as documented during the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOEX) campaign (1995-2000), consists mainly of anthropogenic aerosols, and spans over most of south Asia and the north Indian Ocean. It reduces the net solar flux at the surface by as much as 20-40 W m[sup -2] on a monthly mean basis and heats the lowest 3-km atmosphere by as much as 0.4-0.8 K day[sup -1], which enhances the solar heating of this layer by 50%-100%. This widespread haze layer is a seasonal phenomenon limited to the dry period between November and May. The imposed haze radiative forcing leads to several large and statistically significant climate changes during the dry monsoon season, which include cooling of the land surface, and warming of the atmosphere. These temperature change features lead to the stabilization of the boundary layer that results in a reduction of evaporation and sensible heat flux from the land. The dynamical response to the aerosol forcing is surprisingly large. The aerosol forcing weakens the north-south temperature gradient in the lower level, which results in an enhancement of the area mean low-level convergence and a northward shift of the ITCZ. The increase in low-level convergence leads to increased convective rainfall and latent heat release, which in turn leads to a further increase in lowlevel convergence. This positive feedback between the low-level convergence and deep convective heating increases the average precipitation over the haze area by as much as 20%. The ocean surface undergoes a suppression of evaporation. Because of this decreased evaporation accompanied by the increase in the hazearea precipitation, the precipitation over the rest of the Tropics decreases, with a large fraction of this decrease concentrated over the Indonesian and the western Pacific... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The tropical Indian Ocean provides an ideal and unique natural laboratory to observe and understand the role of anthropogenic aerosols in climate forcing. Since 1996, an international team of American, European and Indian scientists have been collecting aerosol, chemical and radiation data from ships and surface stations, which culminated in a multi-platform field experiment conducted during January to March of 1999. A persistent haze layer that spread over most of the northern Indian Ocean during wintertime was discovered. The layer, a complex mix of organics, black carbon, sulfates, nitrates and other species, subjects the lower atmosphere to a strong radiative heating and a larger reduction in the solar heating of the ocean. We present here the regional distribution of aerosols and the resulting clear sky aerosol radiative forcing at top-of-atmosphere (TOA) observed over the Indian Ocean during the winter months of 1997, 1998 and 1999 based on the aerosol optical depth (AOD) estimated using NOAA14-AVHRR and the TOA radiation budget data from CERES on board TRMM. Using the ratio of surface to TOA clear sky aerosol radiative forcing observed during the same period over the Indian Ocean island of Kaashidhoo (Satheesh and Ramanathan, 2000), the clear sky aerosol radiative forcing at the surface and the atmosphere are discussed. The regional maps of AVHRR derived AOD show abnormally large aerosol concentration during the winter of 1999 which is about 1.5 to 2 times larger than the AOD during the corresponding period of 1997 and 1998. A large latitudinal gradient in AOD is observed during all the three years of observation, with maximum AOD in the northern hemisphere. The diurnal mean clear sky aerosol forcing at TOA in the northern hemisphere Indian Ocean is in the range of −4 to −16 Wm−2 and had large spatio-temporal variations while in the southern hemisphere Indian Ocean it is in the range of 0 to −6Wm−2. The importance of integrating in-situ data with satellite data to get reliable picture of the regional scale aerosol forcing is demonstrated. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In this paper diagnostic estimates of cloud radiative forcing (CRF) and clear-sky radiation budget at the surface and in the atmosphere, based on satellite-observed radiation budget at the top of the atmosphere (TOA) and empirical parameterizations derived from radiation models and field observations, are presented. This analysis is restricted to the tropical Pacific. High clouds over the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), the South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ), and the warm pool (WP) exert a positive CRF of about 70 W m within the atmosphere and a negative CRF of about -70 W m[sup -2] at the surface, although with a negligible net CRF at the TOA. On the other hand, low clouds over the eastern subtropical Pacific and the equatorial cold tongue exert a negative CRF of about -20 W m[sup -2] at the surface as well as in the atmosphere. The spatial gradients of the clear-sky radiation budget at the surface and in the atmosphere are small. In particular, it is shown that the clear-sky radiative cooling in the atmosphere is larger over the ITCZ, the SPCZ, and the WE when compared with that over the subtropics and the cold tongue. Next, based on these diagnostic estimates and available surface turbulent heat flux data, the role of atmospheric CRF in the large-scale atmospheric moist static energy (MSE) transport is quantified. It is found that the atmospheric CRF provides the major energy source for balancing the divergence of MSE transport (from the ITCZ, the SPCZ, and the WP to the subtropics and the cold tongue) by the large-scale atmospheric circulation. On the other hand, the clear-sky radiative flux convergence and the surface turbulent heat fluxes have just the reverse spatial pattern and hence cannot satisfy the large-scale atmospheric MSE transport requirements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the impact of aerosols on the hydrological cycle and climate. Enhancement of solar radiation absorption by human-made aerosols; Production of clouds that are less efficient at releasing precipitation; Changes in the atmospheric temperature structure.

Examines three-dimensional solar radiative heating rates within tropical convective-cirrus systems to identify the scales that contribute significantly to the spatial average over a climate model's grid cell. Techniques for understanding the spatial resolution and subgrid-cloud property information needed in climate models; Computation of heating rates.

ABSTRACT Clouds exert a thermodynamic forcing on the ocean-atmosphere column through latent heating, owing to the production of rain, and through cloud radiative forcing, owing to the absorption of terrestrial infrared energy and the reflection of solar energy. The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite provides, for the first time, simultaneous measurements of each of these processes on the spatial scales of individual clouds. Data from TRMM are used to examine the scale dependence of the cloud thermodynamic forcing and to understand the dominant spatial scales of forcing in monsoonal cloud systems. The tropical Indian Ocean is chosen, because the major monsoonal cloud systems are located over this region. Using threshold criteria, the satellite data are segmented into rain cells (consisting of only precipitating pixels) and clouds (consisting of precipitating as well as nonprecipitating pixels), ranging in scales from l0[sup 3] km[sup 2] to 10[sup 6] km[sup 2]. For each rain cell and cloud, latent heating is estimated from the microwave imager and radiative forcing is estimated from the Cloud and the Earth's Radiant Energy System radiation budget instrument. The sizes of clouds and rain cells over the tropical Indian Ocean are distributed lognormally. Thermodynamic forcing of clouds increases with rain cell and cloud area. For example, latent heating increases from about 100 W m[sup -2] for a rain cell of 10[sup 3] km[sup 2] to as high as 1500 W m[sup -2] for a rain cell of 10[sup 6] km[sup 2].... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents an observational method for quantifying aerosol forcing. Effect of radiative forcing by anthropogenic aerosols; Major source of uncertainty in climate predictions; Utilization of calibrated satellite radiation measurements.

Deep convective clouds in the Tropics have long been recognized to occur on a wide spectrum of spatial scales, ranging from the individual cumulus to the meso- and synoptic-scale cloud systems. The objective of this paper is to examine the scale dependence of the properties of clouds embedded in the Intertropical Con-vergence Zone. The Indian Ocean during the winter and summer monsoons offers an ideal domain to undertake this study, which uses INSAT-1B infrared imagery. The cloud systems are retrieved using the detect and spread algorithm and classified according to their top temperatures. Their spatial extension spans a continuous spectrum of individual clouds ranging from 500 km 2 to 10 6 km 2 . The spatial distribution of these convective clouds over the Indian Ocean exhibits an increase in convective activity during boreal winter compared to summer. Despite the drastic modification of the synoptic environment over the seasonal cycle, intrinsic cloud properties in January and July are shown to be very similar. The intrinsic cloud properties that are retrieved are the convective core area relative to the total cloud area, the area colder than 240 K (corresponding roughly to stratiform precipitation), the average cloud-top temperature of the entire cloud (core and anvil), and the minimum cloud-top temperature within a cloud that is assumed to denote the temperature of the overshooting cloud tops. The analysis reveals a critical scale of about 10 4 km 2 , which distinguishes two separate convective regimes of scale-dependent cloud properties. Below the critical scale, the cloud mean effective temperature increases with cloud size and the relative core area decreases with the size. The overshooting cloud-top temperature is invariant to the cloud scale. For scales larger than the critical value, the scale dependence is reversed: the mean cloud temperature decreases, the fractional core area increases, and the overshooting cloud top strongly... [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Sexuality is expressed through an individual's sexual behaviours. Distinguishing "problematic" or atypical sexual behaviours from "typical" sexual behaviours depends on sociocultural conceptions of the norm. Perceptions of problematic sexual behaviour evolve in response to societal change. These perceptions influence and reflect the attitudes and vales of health practitioners. The attitudes and values of health practitioners directly affects clients with problematic sexual behaviours. Therapy approaches are not value-free. Practitioners are influenced by sociocultural norms which create and reinforce stereotypes. These social forces are especially pronounced in the context of problematic sexual behaviours. The nosological classification of sexual "disorders" risks pathologizing normal variants of sexual behaviours. Despite this, research examining health practitioner attitudes and values toward problematic sexual behaviours is scant. Existing measures of attitudes either focus on a broad range of sexual behaviours or on sexual health overall. We therefore sought to understand the themes underlying health practitioner attitudes and values toward problematic sexual behaviours. Objective: To assess the themes influencing health practitioner attitudes and values towards problematic sexual behaviours. Methods: An inductive qualitative approach provided the framework using in-depth, semi-structured interviews. An interview schedule was based on deductive domains gleaned from a review research exploring health practitioner attitudes and values toward problematic sexual behaviour, and the research team's experience of the field. A case vignette of a distressed person reporting a problematic sexual behaviour was created to trigger discussion. A diverse range of health practitioners working with people reporting problematic sexual behaviours was recruited. This included five medical doctors (general practice, psychiatry, sexual health) and two sexual health nurses. A coding matrix was generated based on a priori review of the literature and a posteriori review of the interviews. Thematic analysis of interview transcripts was performed using the software program NVivo. Results: Five themes emerged from the interviews. Two deductive themes were identified: methods of inquiry about sexual behaviours; discrepancies in defining problematic sexual behaviours. Myriad frameworks underpin a practitioner's exploration of sexual behaviour issues. Interviewees also could not operationalise a consistent definition of the "problem". Three inductive themes emerged: managing judgement in consultations; reflections on practitioner knowledge; the tension between fantasies and problematic sexual behaviours. Interviewees referred to "non-judgemental care" as essential in addressing sexual behaviour problems. There was consistent reference to a "limited understanding" of problematic sexual behaviours. A need to differentiate thoughts (fantasies) from actions (behaviours) for risk stratification was apparent. Conclusions: The attitudes and values of health practitioners are influenced by sociocultural conceptions of normative sexual expression. These attitudes and values affect practitioner responses to people with problematic sexual behaviours. To better understand this, we propose three recommendations: the development of tailored supports to assist practitioners in managing judgements; an educational module to build understanding of problematic sexual behaviours; the development of a survey instrument to investigate the attitudes and values of health practitioners more broadly in responding to problematic sexual behaviours. Disclosure: No. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Sexuality is expressed through an individual's sexual behaviours. Distinguishing "problematic" or atypical sexual behaviours from "typical" sexual behaviours depends on sociocultural conceptions of the norm. Perceptions of problematic sexual behaviour evolve in response to societal change. These perceptions influence and reflect the attitudes and vales of health practitioners. The attitudes and values of health practitioners directly affects clients with problematic sexual behaviours. Therapy approaches are not value-free. Practitioners are influenced by sociocultural norms which create and reinforce stereotypes. These social forces are especially pronounced in the context of problematic sexual behaviours. The nosological classification of sexual "disorders" risks pathologizing normal variants of sexual behaviours. Despite this, research examining health practitioner attitudes and values toward problematic sexual behaviours is scant. Existing measures of attitudes either focus on a broad range of sexual behaviours or on sexual health overall. We therefore sought to understand the themes underlying health practitioner attitudes and values toward problematic sexual behaviours. Objective: To assess the themes influencing health practitioner attitudes and values towards problematic sexual behaviours. Methods: An inductive qualitative approach provided the framework using in-depth, semi-structured interviews. An interview schedule was based on deductive domains gleaned from a review research exploring health practitioner attitudes and values toward problematic sexual behaviour, and the research team's experience of the field. A case vignette of a distressed person reporting a problematic sexual behaviour was created to trigger discussion. A diverse range of health practitioners working with people reporting problematic sexual behaviours was recruited. This included five medical doctors (general practice, psychiatry, sexual health) and two sexual health nurses. A coding matrix was generated based on a priori review of the literature and a posteriori review of the interviews. Thematic analysis of interview transcripts was performed using the software program NVivo. Results: Five themes emerged from the interviews. Two deductive themes were identified: methods of inquiry about sexual behaviours; discrepancies in defining problematic sexual behaviours. Myriad frameworks underpin a practitioner's exploration of sexual behaviour issues. Interviewees also could not operationalise a consistent definition of the "problem". Three inductive themes emerged: managing judgement in consultations; reflections on practitioner knowledge; the tension between fantasies and problematic sexual behaviours. Interviewees referred to "non-judgemental care" as essential in addressing sexual behaviour problems. There was consistent reference to a "limited understanding" of problematic sexual behaviours. A need to differentiate thoughts (fantasies) from actions (behaviours) for risk stratification was apparent. Conclusions: The attitudes and values of health practitioners are influenced by sociocultural conceptions of normative sexual expression. These attitudes and values affect practitioner responses to people with problematic sexual behaviours. To better understand this, we propose three recommendations: the development of tailored supports to assist practitioners in managing judgements; an educational module to build understanding of problematic sexual behaviours; the development of a survey instrument to investigate the attitudes and values of health practitioners more broadly in responding to problematic sexual behaviours. Disclosure: No. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Describes the use of the three-dimensional delta-Eddington approximation to explain the three-dimensional radiative transfer in a weakly inhomogeneous medium. Discussion on the role of the transfer of solar radiation through the earth's atmosphere in climate and climate change; Independent pixel approximation for the retrieval of optical properties from satellite imagery; In-depth look at internal inhomogeneity in a conservatively scattering medium.

Discusses the role of clouds in the earth's radiation budget, the incident and reflected sunlight and long-wave radiation emitted to space. The Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) has used three different satellites over the past decade to study data relating to the greenhouse effect; Experiments in convective equilibrium; Radiation budget and climatic changes. INSET: Human activities, greenhouse effect and climate change..

The activation of complement by a number of metal compounds, previously found to induce chronic inflammation, was investigated. Results obtained were compared with complement activation by inulin and zymosan. It was shown that complement activation by these metal compounds did not necessarily involve either the classical or the alternative pathways. Some of these compounds were unable to activate complement in the absence of detectable plasminogen. The results obtained indicate a relationship between the ability of these compounds to induce chronic inflammation in the guinea-pig and to activate complement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Examines the impact of the heat absorption and reflection by clouds on the net solar radiation at sea surface. Magnitude of shortwave cloud forcing; Reduction of solar radiation at the sea surface by clouds through reflection and trapping; Climatic implications of the energy absorption of clouds; Reduction of the tropics to extratropics heat transport in the oceans.

Plant polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins (PGIPs) inhibit endo-polygalacturonases (endo-PGs) released by invasive fungi. Two potential PGlP cDNAs have been cloned from raspberry (Rubus idaeus). PGIP1 corresponds to a full-length PGIP cDNA with a high degree of identity with previously isolated genes and maintains all the characteristic features of PGIP peptides. A genomic fragment of PGIP1 identifies a single 243 bp intron which is efficiently spliced out of the PGIP1 premRNA transcript. PGIP2 contains a frame shift mutation which would lead to the loss of 105 amino acids off the C-terminus. Contrary to PGIP activity levels in raspberry (Johnston et al., 1993), expression analysis detected PGIP1 at equal levels throughout fruit development from closed flower, through to ripe fruit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability of sera from leprosy patients to solubilize immune precipitates in vitro through the complement system was studied. The solubilizing capacity of sera from patients who did not have any reactions during 2 years or more after starting chemotherapy was comparable with that of normal laboratory volunteers. On the other hand, sera from borderline tuberculoid and lepromatous leprosy patients in reaction had markedly decreased levels of solubilization. Their total and the alternative pathway haemolytic levels did not show a corresponding decrease. Although the circulating immune complexes and serum C3d of these patients came down after the subsidence of reaction, their solubilization remained consistently low during a 3 month follow-up period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents observations made during the 1987 El Nino that show that in the upper range of sea surface temperatures, the greenhouse effect increases with surface temperature at a rate which exceeds the rate at which radiation is being emitted from the surface. Highly reflective cirrus clouds are produced which act like a thermostat, shielding the ocean from solar radiation.

Presents a study that demonstrated an effective method for directly monitoring, from space, future changes in the greenhouse effect. Determination of the greenhouse effect; Global greenhouse effect of atmosphere and clouds; Evidence of water vapor feedback; Implications to the global warming problem.

Discusses the theory of cloud-radiative forcing, or the effect of clouds on the earth's radiation balance. Research from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment has shown that the migration of cloud-radiative forcing can significantly affect the earth's climate; Applications for long-term climate predictions.

Trends in surface air temperature (SAT) are a common metric for global warming. Using observations and observationally driven models, we show that a more comprehensive metric for global warming and weather extremes is the trend in surface equivalent potential temperature (Thetae_sfc) since it also accounts for the increase in atmospheric humidity and latent energy. From 1980 to 2019, while SAT increased by 0.79°C, Thetae_sfc increased by 1.48°C globally and as much as 4°C in the tropics. The increase in water vapor is responsible for the factor of 2 difference between SAT and Thetae_sfc trends. Thetae_sfc increased more uniformly (than SAT) between the midlatitudes of the southern hemisphere and the northern hemisphere, revealing the global nature of the heating added by greenhouse gases (GHGs). Trends in heat extremes and extreme precipitation are correlated strongly with the global/tropical trends in Thetae_sfc. The tropical amplification of Thetae_sfc is as large as the arctic amplification of SAT, accounting for the observed global positive trends in deep convection and a 20% increase in heat extremes. With unchecked GHG emissions, while SAT warming can reach 4.8°C by 2100, the global mean Thetae_sfc can increase by as much as 12°C, with corresponding increases of 12°C (median) to 24°C (5% of grid points) in land surface temperature extremes, a 14- to 30-fold increase in frequency of heat extremes, a 40% increase in the energy available for tropical deep convection, and an up to 60% increase in extreme precipitation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]