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Background: Prophylactic strategies are urgently needed for prevention of severe inflammatory responses to respiratory viral infections. Bacterial-host interactions may modify the immune response to viral infections. Methods: We examined the contribution of Intranasal administration of two different Bifidobacterium longum strains or its isolated cell wall in controlling viral induced inflammation using a murine model of influenza infection. We monitored mortality and morbidity over a 10-day period and viral load, differential broncho alveolar lavage (BAL) fluid inflammatory cell counts, Lung tissue histology, BAL and serum cytokines, markers of vascular damage and cell death were quantified. Findings: Intranasal administration of Bifidobacterium longum35624® or its isolated cell wall prior to virus inoculation significantly reduced viral load within the lungs and significantly improved survival. Reduced viral load was associated with reduced lung injury as suggested by cell death and vascular leakage markers, a shift from neutrophil to macrophage recruitment, reduced inflammatory cytokine levels (including IL-6), reduced type 1 and 2 interferon levels, but increased levels of interferon-λ and surfactant protein D. These protective effects were maintained when the bifidobacterial cell wall preparation was administered 24 h after viral inoculation. The protective effects were also observed for the Bifidobacterium longumPB-VIR™ strain. Interpretation: Exposure to these bifidobacterial strains protect against the inflammatory sequelae and damage associated with uncontrolled viral replication within the lung. Funding: This work has been funded, in part, by a research grant from GlaxoSmithKline, PrecisionBiotics Group Ltd., Swiss National Science Foundation grants (project numbers CRSII3_154488, 310030_144219, 310030_127356 and 310030_144219) and Christine Kuhne - Center for Allergy Research and Education (CK-CARE). Keywords: Influenza; Interferon; Prevention; Probiotic.

10.1080/00357529.2012.728887-F0001 Figure 1. Looking east at a tent camp and vehicles on the mine waste rock dump. Note adit entrances commence in the cusp of the anticlinal fold. Creek flows to bo...

The immune-modulating properties of certain bifidobacterial strains, such as Bifidobacterium longum subsp. longum 35624 ( B. longum 35624), have been well described, although the strain-specific molecular characteristics associated with such immune-regulatory activity are not well defined. It has previously been demonstrated that B. longum 35624 produces a cell surface exopolysaccharide (sEPS), and in this study, we investigated the role played by this exopolysaccharide in influencing the host immune response. B. longum 35624 induced relatively low levels of cytokine secretion from human dendritic cells, whereas an isogenic exopolysaccharide-negative mutant derivative (termed sEPS neg ) induced vastly more cytokines, including interleukin-17 (IL-17), and this response was reversed when exopolysaccharide production was restored in sEPS neg by genetic complementation. Administration of B. longum 35624 to mice of the T cell transfer colitis model prevented disease symptoms, whereas sEPS neg did not protect against the development of colitis, with associated enhanced recruitment of IL-17 + lymphocytes to the gut. Moreover, intranasal administration of sEPS neg also resulted in enhanced recruitment of IL-17 + lymphocytes to the murine lung. These data demonstrate that the particular exopolysaccharide produced by B. longum 35624 plays an essential role in dampening proinflammatory host responses to the strain and that loss of exopolysaccharide production results in the induction of local T H 17 responses. IMPORTANCE Particular gut commensals, such as B. longum 35624, are known to contribute positively to the development of mucosal immune cells, resulting in protection from inflammatory diseases. However, the molecular basis and mechanisms for these commensal-host interactions are poorly described. In this report, an exopolysaccharide was shown to be decisive in influencing the immune response to the bacterium. We generated an isogenic mutant unable to produce exopolysaccharide and observed that this mutation caused a dramatic change in the response of human immune cells in vitro . In addition, the use of mouse models confirmed that lack of exopolysaccharide production induces inflammatory responses to the bacterium. These results implicate the surface-associated exopolysaccharide of the B. longum 35624 cell envelope in the prevention of aberrant inflammatory responses.

The Bifibobacterium longum subsp. longum 35624™ strain (formerly named Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis) is a well described probiotic with clinical efficacy in Irritable Bowel Syndrome clinical trials and induces immunoregulatory effects in mice and in humans. This paper presents (a) the genome sequence of the organism allowing the assignment to its correct subspeciation longum; (b) a comparative genome assessment with other B. longum strains and (c) the molecular structure of the 35624 exopolysaccharide (EPS624). Comparative genome analysis of the 35624 strain with other B. longum strains determined that the sub-speciation of the strain is longum and revealed the presence of a 35624-specific gene cluster, predicted to encode the biosynthetic machinery for EPS624. Following isolation and acid treatment of the EPS, its chemical structure was determined using gas and liquid chromatography for sugar constituent and linkage analysis, electrospray and matrix assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry for sequencing and NMR. The EPS consists of a branched hexasaccharide repeating unit containing two galactose and two glucose moieties, galacturonic acid and the unusual sugar 6-deoxy-L-talose. These data demonstrate that the B. longum 35624 strain has specific genetic features, one of which leads to the generation of a characteristic exopolysaccharide.