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Aim The aim of this review was to evaluate the scientific literature regarding the cytogenetic damage in oral exfoliated cells of adult patients submitted to panoramic X-ray. Materials and methods An extensive search of the literature was conducted on PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases for all studies published until April 2021 using combinations of the following keywords: "panoramic X-ray," "DNA damage," "genetic damage", "genotoxicity", "mutagenicity", cytotoxicity", "buccal cells", "oral mucosa", "tongue", "gingiva", "micronucleus assay", according to the PRISMA guidelines. All clinical studies in English language were included in the study. A total of 10 studies were identified. Results As expected, the results regarding the cytogenetic damage induced by panoramic X-ray are conflicting. Some authors have demonstrated that panoramic X-ray induces mutagenesis in oral cells, whereas others did not. After reviewing the 10 studies, two were classified as strong, four were considered moderate, and four were considered weak, according to the quality assessment components of the Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP). Meta-analysis data revealed a negative response related to mutagenicity in oral cells by panoramic X-ray. Conclusion Taken together, this review failed to demonstrate the association between micronucleus frequency and panoramic X-ray.

Dimethoate ([O,O-dimethyl S-(N-methylcarbamoylmethyl) phosphorodithioate]) is an organophosphate insecticide and acaricide widely used for agricultural purposes. Genotoxicity refers to the ability of a chemical agent interact directly to DNA or act indirectly leading to DNA damage by affecting spindle apparatus or enzymes involved in DNA replication, thereby causing mutations. Taking into consideration the importance of genotoxicity induced by dimethoate, the purpose of this manuscript was to provide a mini review regarding genotoxicity induced by dimethoate as a result of oxidative stress. The present study was conducted on studies available in MEDLINE, PUBMED, EMBASE, and Google scholar for all kind of articles (all publications published until May, 2020) using the following key words: dimethoate, omethoate, DNA damage, genetic damage, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, mutation, and mutagenicity. The results showed that many studies were published in the scientific literature; the approach was clearly demonstrated in multiple tissues and organs, but few papers were designed in humans. In summary, new studies within the field are important for better understanding the pathobiological events of genotoxicity on human cells, particularly to explain what cells and/or tissues are more sensitive to genotoxic insult induced by dimethoate.

Neuropsychiatric disorders are multifactorial disturbances that encompass several hypotheses, including changes in neurodevelopment. It is known that brain development disturbances during early life can predict psychosis in adulthood. As we have previously demonstrated, rotenone, a mitochondrial complex I inhibitor, could induce psychiatric-like behavior in 60-day-old rats after intraperitoneal injections from the 5th to the 11th postnatal day. Because mitochondrial deregulation is related to psychiatric disorders and the establishment of animal models is a high-value preclinical tool, we investigated the responsiveness of the rotenone (Rot)-treated newborn rats to pharmacological agents used in clinical practice, haloperidol (Hal), and methylphenidate (MPD). Taken together, our data show that Rot-treated animals exhibit hyperlocomotion, decreased social interaction, and diminished contextual fear conditioning response at P60, consistent with positive, negative, and cognitive deficits of schizophrenia (SZ), respectively, that were reverted by Hal, but not MPD. Rot-treated rodents also display a prodromal-related phenotype at P35. Overall, our results seem to present a new SZ animal model as a consequence of mitochondrial inhibition during a critical neurodevelopmental period. Therefore, our study is crucial not only to elucidate the relevance of mitochondrial function in the etiology of SZ but also to fulfill the need for new and trustworthy experimentation models and, likewise, provide possibilities to new therapeutic avenues for this burdensome disorder.

Crack cocaine is the crystal form of cocaine, produced by adding sodium bicarbonate to cocaine base paste. Brazil is the largest consumer of crack cocaine in the world. Users of crack cocaine show important physiological and behavioral alterations, including neuropsychiatric symptoms, such as anxiety-related symptoms. Nevertheless, few pre-clinical studies have been previously performed to understand the neurobiological effects of crack cocaine. The purpose of the present study was to investigate effects of the subchronic treatment (5 days, IP) of rats with crack cocaine in an animal model of anxiety/panic, the elevated T-maze (ETM). The ETM model allows the measurement of two behavioral defensive responses, avoidance and escape, in clinical terms, respectively, associated to generalized anxiety and panic disorder, the two main psychiatric conditions that accompany substance use disorders. Immediately after the ETM model, animals were tested in an open field for locomotor activity assessment. Analysis of delta FosB protein immunoreactivity was used to map areas activated by crack cocaine exposure. Results showed that crack treatment selectively altered escape displayed by rats in the ETM test, inducing either a panicolytic (18 mg/kg IP) or a panicogenic-like effect (25 and 36 mg/kg IP). These effects were followed by the altered functioning of panic-modulating brain regions, i.e., the periaqueductal gray and the dorsal region and lateral wings of the dorsal raphe nucleus. Treatment with 36 mg/kg of crack cocaine also increased locomotor activity. These are the first observations performed with crack cocaine in a rodent model of anxiety/panic and contribute to a better understanding of the behavioral and neurobiological effects of crack cocaine.

Background/aim The aim of the present study was to investigate the biological effects of subacute crack cocaine exposure in rat liver. Material and methods A total of 32 rats were distributed into four groups (n=8): Experimental group 1 (G1) and Experimental group 2 (G2): rats received 18 mg/kg of body weight (b.w) of crack cocaine for 5 days, once a day, group G2 remained 72 h without exposure after the experimental period (5 days)(abstinence); Experimental group 3 (G3): rats received 36 mg/kg of body weight (b.w) of crack cocaine for 5 days, once a day; Control Group (CTRL): rats received only the vehicle (DMSO) administered by the intraperitoneal (i.p) route for 5 days, once a day. Results All groups exposed to crack cocaine had an increase in the number of micronucleated hepatocytes and binucleated cells only in the highest tested dose (36 mg/kg). Karyolysis had an increase in the 18 mg/kg dose, in the abstinence group (G2), and 36 mg/kg group (G3); whereas pyknotic nuclei had an increase in the G2 group. The group exposed to 18 mg/kg of crack cocaine also showed high 8 OHdG expression. The p-NF-κB p65 protein decreased in the groups exposed to crack cocaine at doses of 18 and 36 mg/kg, as well as in the abstinence group. MyD88 was also found decreased in the group exposed to crack cocaine at 18 mg/kg. Conclusion Crack cocaine inhibited toll like signaling pathway whilst being associated with genomic instability in rat liver cells.

Neuropsychiatric disorders are multifactorial disturbances that encompass several hypotheses, including changes in neurodevelopment. It is known that brain development disturbances during early life can predict psychosis in adulthood. As we have previously demonstrated, rotenone, a mitochondrial complex I inhibitor, could induce psychiatric-like behavior in 60-day-old rats after intraperitoneal injections from the 5th to the 11th postnatal day. Because mitochondrial deregulation is related to psychiatric disorders and the establishment of animal models is a high-value preclinical tool, we investigated the responsiveness of the rotenone (Rot)-treated newborn rats to pharmacological agents used in clinical practice, haloperidol (Hal), and methylphenidate (MPD). Taken together, our data show that Rot-treated animals exhibit hyperlocomotion, decreased social interaction, and diminished contextual fear conditioning response at P60, consistent with positive, negative, and cognitive deficits of schizophrenia (SZ), respectively, that were reverted by Hal, but not MPD. Rot-treated rodents also display a prodromal-related phenotype at P35. Overall, our results seem to present a new SZ animal model as a consequence of mitochondrial inhibition during a critical neurodevelopmental period. Therefore, our study is crucial not only to elucidate the relevance of mitochondrial function in the etiology of SZ but also to fulfill the need for new and trustworthy experimentation models and, likewise, provide possibilities to new therapeutic avenues for this burdensome disorder.

In the present study, we evaluate the effect of acute restraint stress (15 min) of male Wistar rats on social interaction measurements and c-Fos immunoreactivity (c-Fos-ir) expression, a marker of neuronal activity, in areas involved with the modulation of acute physical restraint in rats, i.e., the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), median raphe nucleus (MnR), medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), cingulate prefrontal cortex (cPFC), nucleus accumbens (NaC), hippocampus (CA3), lateral septum (LS) and medial amygdala (MeA). We considered the hypothesis that restraint stress exposure could promote social withdrawal induced by the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis, and increase c-Fos expression in these limbic forebrain areas investigated. In addition, we investigated whether pretreatment with the atypical antipsychotic clozapine (5 mg/kg; I.P.) could attenuate or block the effects of restraint on these responses. We found that restraint stress induced social withdrawal, and increased c-Fos-ir in these areas, demonstrating that a single 15 min session of physical restraint of rats effectively activated the HPA axis, representing an effective tool for the investigation of neuronal activity in brain regions sensitive to stress. Conversely, pretreatment with clozapine, prevented social withdrawal and reduced c-Fos expression. We suggest that treatment with clozapine exerted a preventive effect in the social interaction deficit, at least in part, by blocking the effect of restraint stress in brain regions that are known to regulate the HPA-axis, including the cerebral cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, septum and amygdala. Further experiments will be done to confirm this hypothesis.

Manganese (Mn) is one of the most common chemical elements on Earth and an essential micronutrient in animal organism. However, in supraphysiological levels and long-term exposures, it is a potential toxicant. Although nervous system is the most studied in relation to Mn toxicity, other tissues can have their function impaired by Mn in high doses. The present study investigated the possible adverse effects of subchronic exposure to supraphysiologic level of Mn (5 mg/kg or 15 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) on reproductive, neurobehavioral, renal and hepatic parameters of male rats. For the first time, the vulnerability of these parameters to Mn was concomitantly investigated. While our results demonstrate that Mn treatments were not sufficient to produce a marked effect of neurotoxic, hepatotoxic or renal toxicity in adult rats, we found typical indicators of reproductive toxicity such as histopathological changes (major in testes and epididymis) and impaired sperm concentration and quality. Mn, under these experimental conditions, seems to exert reproductive toxicity by different testicular mechanisms, i.e. direct and indirect action on germ cells. On the other hand, exposure to Mn did not change the pattern of cognitive and emotional behaviors and the histological organization of kidneys of experimental rats. The liver showed a weight increasement and hidropic degeneration, probable due to the detoxification overload. In summary, for the first time it was demonstrated that adult male reproductive system was more sensitive to Mn toxicity than nervous, hepatic and renal systems, although nervous system is known as the main target tissue of this metal.

IntroductionOsteoarthritis (OA) affects the articular cartilage and subchondral bone, compromising the joint as a whole. The knee joint is characterized as one of the main sites of involvement of OA and the most significant risk factors for developing the disease are aging, overweight and female gender. OA is considered one of the most frequent causes of disability, which may affect the quality of life of the patients, favoring the onset of mental disorders.ObjectiveTo investigate whether anxiety and depression symptoms are more significant in women with OA, when compared with women without this diagnosis, and to what extent this rheumatic disease affects the quality of life of these patients.MethodsThe study included 75 women, mean age 67 years; 40 were diagnosed with knee OA and 35 without this diagnosis. The following instruments were used: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and SF-36, a quality of life questionnaire.ResultsWomen with knee OA have higher rates of depression and anxiety when compared to controls; in addition, they have a lower quality of life.ConclusionWe believe that the treatment of patients with OA should consider the combination of pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, counseling and family support, in order to achieve a better quality of life.

Prepulse inhibition (PPI) is the reduction in the startle response caused by a low intensity non-startling stimulus (prepulse) which is presented shortly before the startle stimulus and is an operational measure of sensorimotor gating. PPI is impaired in schizophrenia patients and in rats with central dopamine (DA) activation. The inferior colliculus (IC) is a critical part of the auditory pathway mediating acoustic PPI. The activation of the IC by the acoustic prepulse reduces startle magnitude. The aim of this study was to elucidate the role of DA transmission of the IC on the development of acoustic PPI. Bilateral microinjections of apomorphine (9.0 μg/0.5 μL), an agonist of D2 receptors, into the IC disrupted PPI while microinjections of haloperidol (0.5 μg/0.5 μL), an antagonist of D2 receptors, into this structure did not alter PPI. These results suggest that dopamine-mediated mechanisms of the IC are involved in the expression of PPI in rodents.

IntroductionDepression has emerged as the most prevalent mental disorder in patients with fibromyalgia. Stress, whose stages are alarm, resistance, near-exhaustion and exhaustion, constitutes a physical reaction to a threatening situation.ObjectiveTo investigate the levels of stress, anxiety and depression in women with fibromyalgia, comparing them with those of healthy women.Patients and methodsParticipants were 50 women, 25 with a diagnosis of fibromyalgia according to the criteria of the American College of Rheumatology, and 25 without this diagnosis, matched for age. Instruments used: Lipp Inventory of Stress Symptoms for Adults (LISS), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI).ResultsThe mean age was 49.36 years for the group with fibromyalgia (FM) and 49.20 years for the group without fibromyalgia (non-FM). FM showed a higher incidence of stress (96%) compared with non-FM (5%). The resistance phase was predominant in both groups, FM (42%) and non-FM (100%). In FM there was distribution of the four stages (alarm, resistance, near-exhaustion and exhaustion). The differences between phases in the analyzed groups were significant (p < 0.001). FM showed predominance of psychological symptoms (54%); non-FM did show the same frequency of psychological and physical/psychological (40%) symptoms. Symptoms of state and trait anxiety and of depression in FM were significantly higher, when compared with non-FM (p < 0.01).ConclusionStress index (96%), trait anxiety (over 50) and clinically relevant depression (greater than 20) in FM were relevant. The understanding of the emotional variables involved in fibromyalgia is important to define the therapeutic strategy.

A dor crônica (DC) é um problema global de saúde. A incidência da DC no mundo oscila entre 7 e 40% da população e, como consequência da mesma, cerca de 50 a 60% dos que sofrem dela ficam parcial ou totalmente incapacitados, de maneira transitória ou permanente, comprometendo de modo significativo a qualidade de vida. Sabe-se que a divisão pré-límbica (PrL) do córtex pré-frontal medial (CPFM) é uma região importante na elaboração da dor e de seus aspectos cognitivos e emocionais. Há evidências que a DC de origem neuropática (DN) é capaz de provocar mudanças morfológicas, resultando em uma reorganização nas redes neurais do CPFM, e existe alta relação de comorbidade entre ansiedade e DC. Sendo assim, necessita-se de estudos que forneçam aprimoramento dos modelos animais em DC para que, assim, investiguem-se as bases neuroanatômicas, neurofisiológicas e psicofarmacológicas da DN e a participação de áreas corticais na gênese e manutenção da dor. Para isso, o presente trabalho foi dividido em três etapas: 1) Avaliação dos aspectos nociceptivos, motores e afetivo-cognitivos de ratos submetidos a um modelo adaptado de injúria por constrição crônica do nervo isquiático (CCI: uma ligadura) comparando com o modelo clássico de Bennett e Xie (CCI: quatro ligaduras): nossos resultados mostraram que o modelo adaptado de CCI produziu hipersensibilidade ao frio (teste de acetona) e alodinia mecânica (teste de von Frey) semelhante ao causado pelo modelo de CCI com quatro ligaduras. Ambos os grupos CCI apresentaram comportamento do tipo ansioso, depressivo e déficits cognitivos, utilizando-se o modelo de campo aberto (open field), teste de nado forçado e teste de reconhecimento de objeto, respectivamente. Contudo, o modelo adaptado pode ser uma melhor opção, visto que uma simples ligadura não provoca prejuízos motores, nem tampouco o comportamento de autotomia, diferentemente dos animais com CCI em que foram realizadas 4 ligaduras. 2) A - Estudo do efeito da Indometacina (2mg/kg), um antiinflamatório não-esteroidal, administrada por via periférica (IP) sobre a DN: a indometacina diminuiu a alodinia mecânica no primeiro, segundo e quarto dias, mas não no décimo quarto, vigésimo primeiro e vigésimo oitavo dias após a CCI adaptada (1 ligadura). Esses dados sugerem que a COX-1 e a COX-2 estão envolvidas na mediação da indução, mas não na manutenção da DN. B - Envolvimento do córtex PrL sobre a geração, potencialização e manutenção da DN, através da microinjeção local de cloreto de cobalto (CoCl2: 1mM/200nL), um bloqueador do influxo de cálcio (causando bloqueio de sinapses). O CoCl2 atenuou a alodinia mecânica no vigésimo primeiro e vigésimo oitavo, mas não no sétimo e décimo quarto dias após a CCI com 1 ligadura. Nossos dados também indicam que córtex PrL participa na elaboração da fase tardia da alodinia mecânica em nosso modelo adaptado de DN. C - Investigação do papel do sistema glutamatérgico, endocanabinoide e endovaniloide do córtex PrL sobre a alodinia mecânica 21 dias após a CCI adaptada. Os presentes resultados mostraram que a microinjeção do agonista N-metil D-Aspartato (NMDA), nas concentrações de 1 e 4 nmol, foi capaz de aumentar a alodinia mecânica durante o teste de von Frey, enquanto que um antagonista de receptores de aminoácidos excitatórios do tipo NMDA, o LY235959, diminuiu a alodinia mecânica quando microinjetado na maior dose (8nmol) no córtex PrL. O AM251, um antagonista de receptores endocanabinoides do tipo CB1, aumentou a alodinia mecânica em todas as doses (50, 100 e 200pmol) quando microinjetado no PrL. O tratamento do PrL com a menor concentração de anandamida (AEA: 5pmol) não alterou a alodinia mecânica; contudo, a administração de AEA no PrL nas doses intermediárias (de 50 e de 100pmol) reduziu a alodinia mecânica, e este efeito foi bloqueado pelo pré-tratamento do PrL com AM251 (200pmol). Digno de nota, o tratamento do PrL com a maior dose de AEA (200pmol) aumentou a alodinia mecânica, no entanto, este efeito foi atenuado pelo bloqueio prévio de receptores de potencial transitório vaniloide do tipo 1 (TRPV1), com microinjeções de 6 Iodo-nor-di-hidrocapsaicina (6-I-CPS) na dose de 3pmol no PrL. Esses dados sugerem que o córtex PrL está envolvido na potenciação e manutenção da DN crônica (DNC), através da ativação dos receptores NMDA e dos receptores TRPV1. O efeito da atenuação da alodinia mecânica foi causado pela ativação dos receptores endocanabinoides do tipo CB1 em roedores com DNC após 21 dias da CCI. 3) Investigação da comorbidade entre a DNC com ansiedade/pânico e o efeito dos agonistas e antagonistas de receptores NMDA e CB1 no PrL em roedores confrontados com serpente após 21 dias da CCI pelo método adaptado: o confronto entre roedores e serpentes constrictoras induziu nos ratos respostas relacionadas ao medo, tais como avaliação de risco, imobilidade defensiva e fuga em animais com DNC e Sham. Além disso, após terem sido confrontados com a serpente, os animais com DNC tiveram a alodinia mecânica aumentada. O pré-tratamento do PrL com NMDA (4nmol) aumentou o índice e porcentagem de avaliação de risco e a porcentagem de fuga, e a dose intermediária de NMDA (1nmol) aumentou o índice de fuga em animais neuropáticos confrontados com uma serpente constrictora. Além disso, a alodinia mecânica foi intensificada após o confronto em animais que receberam NMDA (4nmol) no PrL. Adicionalmente, os animais tratados com LY235959 diminuíram os comportamentos defensivos apresentados por animais com DNC quando confrontados com a salamanta. Além disso, esses animais pré-tratados com o antagonista de receptores NMDA tiveram seus limiares de von Frey aumentados após o confronto. O bloqueio de receptores endocanabionoides do tipo CB1, com o antagonista AM251, aumentou o comportamento de avaliação de riscos dos animais com DN crônica durante a exposição com a serpente e tiveram seus limiares de retirada de pata no teste de von Frey diminuídos após o confronto. Contudo, o pré-tratamento do PrL com AEA (100pmol) diminuiu os comportamentos defensivos de avaliação de risco, imobilidade defensiva e de fuga dos animais com DNC confrontados com a serpente, e esses animais também apresentaram aumento do limiar de retirada de pata no teste de von Frey após o confronto. Interessantemente, a dose de AEA (200pmol) não alterou comportamento defensivo, mas agravou DNC, através da diminuição do limiar de alodinia mecânica, apresentando um clássico efeito em \"U invertido\", pois menor e a maior dose de AEA (50 e 200pmol) induziram valores de comportamentos defensivo elevados, semelhante ao controle (veículo). Concluindo, os presentes dados obtidos no nosso trabalho, sugerem que o modelo adaptado de CCI, através da realização de uma ligadura do nervo isquiático, é um modelo animal eficaz para se estudarem as comorbidades entre DC e alterações cognitivas e emocionais. A diminuição da atividade das enzimas COX-1 e COX-2 atenuou a alodinia mecânica apenas durante a gênese da DN. Além disso, evidenciou-se que o córtex PrL é recrutado para elaborar a DN durante sua manutenção e potencialização. A ativação dos receptores glutamatérgicos do tipo NMDA e vaniloides do tipo TRPV1 potencializam a DNC e o sistema endocanabinoide via receptor CB1 a diminui. Finalmente, roedores com DNC tiveram seus limiares de alodinia mecânica diminuídos após o confronto com a serpente. Os comportamentos defensivos foram intensificados em animais com DNC, mostrando, assim, o estabelecimento da comorbidade entre DC e ansiedade/pânico e a participação do neocórtex na elaboração da DNC, em um modelo de neuropatia periférica induzida pela constrição crônica no nervo isquiático em ratos Wistar. A comorbidade entre ansiedade/pânico e DNC sensibiliza os animais, agravando o quadro de dor crônica. Chronic pain (CP) is a global health problem. The incidence of CP in the world ranges from 7 to 40% of the population and, as a consequence, about 50% to 60% of those suffering from it are partially or totally incapacitated, in a transitory or permanent manner significantly compromising the quality of life. The prelimbic (PrL) division of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is an important region for the elaboration of cognitive and emotional aspects of pain. In addition, chronic neuropathic pain (CNP) can induce morphological changes, resulting in a reorganisation in the mPFC neurons. Moreover, there is an intrinsic relation between CP and anxiety disorder. Our study aims to investigate the effects of a modification of an animal model of CP and evaluate the neuroanatomical and pharmacological bases of neuropathic pain (NP). The role played by PrL cortex in the modulation of CNP was also investigated. Thus, the present work was divided into three steps: 1) Ethological analysis of nociceptive, motor and affective-cognitive aspects of rats submitted to an adapted model of chronic constriction of the ischiadicus nervus (CCI: a simple ligature) compared with the classic CCI model performed by Bennett and Xie (CCI: four ligatures): our results showed that the adapted-CCI model produced cold hypersensitivity and mechanical allodynia similar to those described in laboratory animals submitted to the model with four ligatures of the ischiadicus nervus. Both CCI groups displayed anxiety- and depression-like responses, and cognitive deficits, in the the open field test, forced swim test and object recognition test, respectively. However, the adapted model of CCI used in the present work may be a better choice, since a simple ligature of the ischiadicus nervus cause neither motor deficits, nor autotomy behaviour, unlike the animals with CCI induced by four ligatures of spinal nerves. 2) A- Effect of Indomethacin (2mg/kg) a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug peripherally administered (IP) on NP: The peripheral treatment with indomethacin reduced mechanical allodynia on the first, second, and fourth days, but not on the fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth days after adapted CCI. These findings suggest that COX-1 and COX-2 are involved in the mediation of NP induction, but not in the maintainance of NP. B- Involvement of the PrL cortex on the generation, potentiation and maintenance of DN, through the microinjection of cobalt chloride (CoCl2: 1mM/200nL), a calcium influx blocker (synapse blocker): CoCl2 attenuated mechanical allodynia at twenty-first and twenty-eighth, but not at seventh and fourteenth days after CCI. Our data also indicate that PrL cortex participates in the elaboration of the chronic phase of mechanical allodynia in our adapted NP model. C- The role of the glutamatergic, endocannabinoid and endovanniloid systems of the PrL cortex on mechanical allodynia 21 days after CCI: The present data showed that microinjection of the N-methyl D-Aspartate agonist (NMDA), in a dose of 1 and 4nmol, was able to increase the mechanical allodynia threshold during mechanical stimulation by von Frey test filaments, whereas the NMDA receptors antagonist LY235959 decreased mechanical allodynia when microinjected at the highest dose (8nmol) in the PrL. The PrL cortex pretreatment with the CB1-cannabinoid receptor antagonist AM251 increased mechanical allodynia at all doses (50, 100 and 200 pmol). Microinjections of anandamide (AEA) at the smaller dose (5pmol) in PrL did not cause influence in the mechanical allodynia. However, the PrL treatment with AEA at the intermediate doses (50 and 100pmol) reduced mechanical allodynia and that effect were blocked by the pretreatment of the PrL cortex with AM251 (200pmol). Interestingly, the higher dose of AEA (200pmol) increased mechanical allodynia. Furthermore, this effect was attenuated by the PrL pretreatment with the transient potential receptor antagonist type 1 (TRPV1) ion channel selective antagonist 6 Iodonordihidrocapsaicin (6-I-CPS) in a dose of 3 pmol. These findings suggest that the PrL cortex is involved in the potentiation and maintenance of CNP through the activation of NMDA receptors and TRPV1 receptors in PrL cortex. The effect of attenuation of mechanical allodynia was caused by the activation of CB1 endocannabinoid receptors in rodents with CNP after 21 days of CCI. 3) Investigation of the comorbidity between CNP with anxiety/panic and the effect of NMDA glutamatergic and CB1 endocannabinoid receptors on PrL cortex after 21 days of CCI in rodents. The confrontation between a constrictor snake and the rodent elicited innate fear-related responses in prey, such as risk assessment, defensive immobility, and escape behaviour that were enhanced in CNP rodents and Sham. Also, after a confrontation with a potential predator, the CNP animals increased their mechanical allodynia thresholds. In adition, the microinjection of NMDA (4nmol) PrL, increased innate fear-related responses, such as risk assessment, and the treatment of PrL with NMDA at 1nmol incresed escape behaviour in rodents with CNP. The treatment of the PrL with NMDA in a dose of 4nmol increased the mechanical allodynia threshold during mechanical stimulation by von Frey test filaments, after confrontantion, whereas PrL pretreatment with LY235959 decreased innate fear-related responses, such risk assessment, defensive immobility, and escape behavior and decreased mechanical allodynia when microinjected (4 and 8nmol). The PrL Pretreatment with the CB1-cannabinoid receptor antagonist AM251 (all doses) increased unconditioned fear-related responses, such as risk assessment. Moreover, AM251 (100 and 200pmol) microinjections in the PrL increased mechanical allodynia after prey versus predator confrontation. The microinjections of AEA (100pmol) in the PrL decreased risk assessment, defensive immobility, and escape behaviour and reduced mechanical allodynia. Interestingly, the pretreatment of the PrL with the higher dose of AEA (200pmol) did not change the fear-induced behaviour elicited by predators, but increased the CNP. There was a classical inverted U-shape curve from the lower to the higher dose of AEA. These data suggest that the anxiety/panic and pain comorbidity increases CNP symptoms. The present findings also indicate that the CCI-adapted model, by ischiadicus nervus ligation with a single ligature is an effective animal model for studying comorbidities between CP and cognitive/emotional disturbances. In conclusion, we observed that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are efficient to attenuate the mechanical allodynia only during NP genesis. The PrL cortex is recruited during the maintenance and potentiation of NP. The PrL glutamatergic system via NMDA activation and endovaniloid mechanisms related to TRPV1 ion channel activation potentiate CNP, and the endocannabinoid mechanisms via CB1 receptors recruitment decrease the CNP. Finally, rodents with CNP had their mechanical allodynia thresholds decreased after the confrontation with wild snakes. In addition, their defensive behaviours were itemised, thus showing the anxiety/panic and CNP potential comorbidity and the participation of the neocortex in the elaboration of CP in a model of peripheral neuropathy induced by injury of the ischiadicus nervus through its chronic constriction in Wistar rats.

O colículo inferior (CI) é uma estrutura envolvida primariamente com o processamento da informação acústica, porém participa também na integração dos aspectos sensoriais, autonômicos e comportamentais da reação de defesa frente a situações de ameaça. Além disso, essa estrutura apresenta alta concentração de receptores dopaminérgicos, sendo a dopamina um dos neuromoduladores mais ativos em mecanismos subjacentes a estados de medo e ansiedade. Desta forma, o objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o papel dos receptores dopaminérgicos (D1 e D2) do CI na expressão de respostas defensivas incondicionadas ou condicionadas. Para tanto, ratos Wistar machos (±270g, n=186) passaram por cirurgia estereotáxica para implante bilateral de cânulas-guia direcionadas ao CI. Esses animais receberam administração intra-CI de quimpirole (agonista D2), sulpirida (antagonista D2), SKF 38393 (agonista D1) ou SCH 23390 (antagonista D1), em diferentes doses, e foram submetidos aos testes do labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE) e ao campo aberto. Uma dose de sulpirida foi avaliada também no teste do sobressalto potencializado pelo medo (SPM). Quanto à avaliação das respostas defensivas no teste do LCE, foi observado que apenas a sulpirida diminuiu as entradas e o tempo despendido nos braços abertos, ou seja, causou um efeito pró-aversivo. As outras drogas não influenciaram essas respostas defensivas. Um comprometimento no desempenho motor foi observado pela administração intra-CI de quimpirole (diminuição nas entradas nos braços fechados) e de SCH 23390 (diminuição da locomoção no campo aberto). Quanto aos efeitos de sulpirida sobre as respostas defensivas no teste do SPM, nenhuma influência sobre a resposta de amplitude do sobressalto e sobre o congelamento foi constatada. Os dados obtidos apontam para o envolvimento da modulação dopaminérgica por meio de receptores da família D2 no CI na expressão de respostas incondicionadas de medo. Dopamina no CI parece, portanto, ser importante para regular a expressão dessas respostas. Por outro lado, não obtivemos evidências de que tal modulação no CI esteja envolvida na expressão de respostas condicionadas de medo. Portanto, a neurotransmissão dopaminérgica no CI sobre a expressão de respostas defensivas parece ocorrer por meio de receptores da família D2, com ação seletiva na modulação de respostas incondicionadas de medo. The inferior colliculus (IC) is a structure primarily involved in acoustic information processing, but it also participates in the integration of the sensory, autonomic and behavioral aspects of the defensive reaction to threatening situations. Furthermore, this structure has a high concentration of dopamine receptors, and dopamine is one of the most active neuromodulators in the mechanisms underlying states of fear and anxiety. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the role of IC dopamine receptors (D1 and D2) in the expression of unconditioned and conditioned defensive responses. For this purpose, male Wistar rats (±270 g, n=186) were implanted with bilateral guide cannuli directed to the IC. These animals received intraIC quinpirole (D2 agonist), sulpiride (D2 antagonist), SKF 38393 (D1 agonist) or SCH 23390 (D1 antagonist) at different doses, and were tested in the elevated plus maze (EPM) and the open field tests. A single dose of sulpiride was also evaluated in the fear potentiated startle test (FPS). In the EPM test, it was observed that only sulpiride decreased the numbers of entries and time spent in the open arms of the maze, suggesting an ansiogenic-like effect. The other drugs did not influence these defensive responses. Impairment in motor performance was observed with intraIC quimpirole (decrease in closed arm entries) and SCH 23390 (decrease in locomotion in the open field test). In the FPS test, no significant effects in the amplitude of the startle response and freezing behavior were observed. The data point to an involvement of IC dopaminergic D2-like receptors in the expression of unconditioned fear responses. Dopamine in the IC, therefore, seems to be important for regulating the expression of these responses. On the other hand, there was no evidence that this modulation in the IC is involved in the expression of conditioned fear responses. Therefore, the influence of the dopaminergic neurotransmission in the IC on the expression of defensive responses appears to occur via D2-like receptors, which selectively modulate unconditional fear responses.

Vários estudos mostram que o núcleo mediano da rafe (NMR) e o hipocampo dorsal (HD) estão envolvidos no medo condicionado Pavloviano. Além disso, mecanismos serotoninérgicos do NMR parecem participar da expressão da resposta de medo condicionado contextual. Entretanto, ainda não existe uma abordagem experimental que integre os mecanismos do circuito NMR-HD. Neste trabalho, o paradigma do medo condicionado foi utilizado para testar a influência dos mecanismos serotoninérgicos do circuito NMR-HD no medo condicionado contextual. As respostas de sobressalto e congelamento foram avaliadas após a administração de drogas serotoninérgicas intra-NMR e no HD, 6 h depois a sessões treino, nas quais os ratos eram condicionados com choques nas patas. A redução da transmissão serotoninérgica no NMR é devido a microinjeção do 8-hidroxi-2(di-n-propilamino)-tetralin (8-OH-DPAT), um agonista de receptores 5-HT1A, no NMR promoveu redução das respostas de congelamento, mas não alterou a resposta de sobressalto. Estes resultados são consistentes com a ideia de que mecanismos serotoninérgicos no NMR regulam as respostas de congelamento a um contexto aversivo. A diminuição pós-sináptica da serotonina nas áreas de projeção do NMR ocorre devido a ativação de autoreceptores 5-HT1A nesta estrutura. Com relação ao hipocampo, a microinjeção de cetanserina, um antagonista de receptores 5-HT2, não promoveu alteração nas respostas de congelamento e sobressalto potencializado pelo medo, porém a ativação de receptores 5-HT1A pela injeção de 8-OH-DPAT 6 h após o treino inibiu essas respostas. De acordo com esses resultados, um mecanismo inibitório deva se interpor entre os processos associados à chegada de informação aversiva e os associados à saída delas no HD. As projeções HD-amígdala e córtex pré-frontal medial podem constituir a porta de saída dos processos neurais subjacentes a expressão do medo condicionado contextual, conforme foi observado no experimento em que estudou a imunorreatividade destas estruturas á proteína Fos em ratos submetidos ao mesmo procedimento experimental de medo condicionado contextual Several studies have shown that the median raphe nucleus (MRN) and dorsal hippocampus (DH) are involved in Pavlovian conditioned fear. Moreover, previous findings have also implicated serotonergic mechanisms of the MRN in the retrieval of contextual conditioned fear. However, studies that examine the integrated involvement of serotonergic mechanisms of the MRN-DH are lacking. This study, a fear conditioning paradigm was used to test whether the serotonergic projections from the MRN to DH can influence contextual fear conditioning. Startle and freezing responses were avaliated after administration of serotoninergics drugs into the MRN or DH, 6 h previously rats received footshocks in the training session. A reduction of 5-HT transmission in the MRN by local infusions of the 5-HT1A agonist 8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propylamino)-tetralin (8-OH-DPAT) decreased freezing in response to the CS but did not reduce fear-potentiated startle. This pattern of results is consistent with the hypothesis that MRN serotonergic mechanisms selectively modulate the freezing response to the aversive context. As for the DH, a decrease in postsynaptic 5-HT receptor activity at projection areas has been proposed to be the main consequence of 5-HT1A receptor activation in the MRN. Infusions of the 5-HT2 receptor antagonist ketanserin into the DH had no effect, but activation of 5-HT1A receptors through intra-DH injections of 8-OH-DPAT inhibited both the freezing and fear-potentiated startle response to the CS. To reconcile these findings, an inhibitory mechanism may exist between the incoming DH 5-HT pathway from the MRN and the presynaptic 5-HT neurons that are part of the DH output to other structures. The DH-amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex projections could well be this output circuit modulating the expression of contextual fear conditioning as revealed by measurements of Fos immunoreactivity in these areas.

O labirinto em cruz elevado (LCE) é um dos testes de ansiedade mais empregados na atualidade. Uma característica intrigante desse modelo é a abolição dos efeitos ansiolíticos dos benzodiazepínicos como resultado de uma única experiência prévia no labirinto. Este fenômeno, chamado “one-trial tolerance" (OTT), tem recebido considerável atenção e dentre as diversas hipóteses sugeridas para explicá-lo, podemos citar uma alteração no estado emocional do animal, perda do conflito motivacional e habituação do comportamento exploratório. A descoberta de que benzodiazepínicos reduzem a atividade de neurônios serotoninérgicos, associada a resultados obtidos em testes de conflito que mostram que antagonistas serotoninérgicos podem causar efeitos ansiolíticos comparáveis aos benzodiazepínicos, levaram à noção de que a serotonina (5-HT) é o principal neurotransmissor envolvido na ansiedade. No entanto, com o uso de outros modelos animais, o envolvimento da 5-HT tem sido questionado, ao mesmo tempo em que outras aminas biogênicas, como a noradrenalina (NA), têm sido implicadas na modulação da ansiedade. Nesse estudo procedemos uma análise etofarmacológica de ratos tratados com o antagonista serotoninérgico cetanserina e os antidepressivos fluoxetina e desipramina submetidos ao teste e reteste no LCE. Esses antidepressivos aumentam os níveis sinápticos de 5-HT e NA, respectivamente. Além disso, foram medidas as concentrações plasmáticas de corticosterona - considerada um índice confiável de medo e estresse - de ratos expostos à sessão única ou repetida no LCE. As drogas administradas antes da reexposição ao labirinto não produziram efeitos ansiolíticos, replicando o fenômeno da OTT comumente associado aos benzodiazepínicos. Por outro lado, a cetanserina administrada antes da primeira sessão produziu um efeito ansiolítico, mas o tratamento subcrônica com fluoxetina e desipramina não alterou o comportamento exploratório dos animais no LCE. Ratos submetidos à sessão única ou repetida no labirinto apresentaram um aumento similar dos níveis plasmáticos de corticosterona, indicando que a reexposição ao LCE apresenta propriedades aversivas e a OTT deve estar mais relacionada à uma alteração no estado emocional do animal do que à habituação do comportamento exploratório. The elevated plus-maze (EPM) is currently one of the most used test of anxiety. An intriguing feature of this model is the abolition of the anxiolytic effect of benzodiazepines by a single previous experience with the maze. This phenomenon, termed one-trial tolerance (OTT), has received considerable attention and among the several hypotheses suggested to explain it, we can listed a shift in the animal emotional state, lack of motivational conflict and exploratory behavior habituation. The discovery that benzodiazepines reduce the activity of serotonergic neurons, associated with results obtained in conflict tests showing that serotonergic antagonists may cause anxiolitic-like effects comparable to the benzodiazepines, has led to the notion that the serotonin (5-HT) is the most important neurotransmitter involved in the anxiety. Nevertheless, with the use of other animal models, the 5-HT involvement has been questioned, at the same time that other biogenic amines, such as noradrenalin (NA), have been implicated in the anxiety modulation. In this study, we carried out an ethopharmacological analysis of rats under treatment with the serotonergic antagonist ketanserin and the antidepressants fluoxetine and desipramine submitted to the test and retest in the EPM. These antidepressants increase the synaptic levels of 5-HT and NA, respectively. Besides, plasma corticosterone concentrations - considered a reliable index of fear and stress - of rats exposed once or twice to the EPM were measured. The drugs injected before the retest in the EPM did not produce anxiolytic effects, replicating the OTT phenomenon generally associated with the benzodiazepines. On the other hand, ketanserin injected before the first session produced an anxiolytic effect but the subchronic treatment with fluoxetine and desipramine did not change the exploratory behavior of the animals in the EPM. Naive and experienced rats show a similar increase in the plasma corticosterone levels when submitted to the EPM, indicating that the retest to EPM has aversive properties and the OTT may be more related to a change in the emotional state of the animal than to a habituation of the exploratory behavior.