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Negative performance feedback is vital for stimulating employees to enhance their performance despite resulting in stress and adverse work outcomes. Fortunately, artificial intelligence (AI)‐enabled automated agents have gradually assumed certain functions led by human leaders, such as providing feedback. Drawing from regulatory focus theory, we propose that AI‐based feedback systems can serve as a "remediation" tool, effectively mitigating employees' apprehensions about receiving negative feedback. In two studies, we found that for employees who fear losing face, AI‐based negative feedback motivates promotion‐focused cognition—motivation to learn—representing a learning mechanism to promote job performance and impedes their prevention‐focused cognition—interpersonal rumination—reducing the depletion needed for job performance. These findings present novel perspectives on using AI in performance feedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How the behavioral motivation of each organization is shaped or emerges during the interorganizational transaction deserves more investigation. Drawing on regulatory focus theory, this study delves into the impact of contractual complexity and organizational culture on regulatory focus as behavioral motivation in construction projects. This study dissects contractual complexity into control, coordination, and adaptation grounded in a functional perspective, decomposes regulatory focus into prevention focus and promotion focus, and splits organizational culture into group culture, developmental culture, hierarchical culture, and rational culture. Through validating the empirical data from 411 questionnaires within Chinese construction sector, this study uncovers that contractual control and contractual coordination positively affect prevention focus, while contractual adaptation positively affects promotion focus. Four different types of organizational culture play different moderating roles in the process of stimulating regulatory focus. Organizations with high group culture have a strong driving force for the formation of both regulatory focuses. In contrast, the average level of hierarchical culture, developmental culture, or rational culture is not conducive to the formation of prevention focus or promotion focus. These findings explain how behavioral motivation is impacted by transaction characteristics such as contracts from the perspective of social psychology, confirm the spillover effect of organizational culture of one party at the interorganizational level, and provide suggestions for practitioners on how to develop interorganizational relationships and allocate resources appropriately. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

PurposeDesign/methodology/approachFindingsOriginality/valueRelying on regulatory focus theory (RFT), this study examines the mechanisms that guide managers’ positioning-related decisions in business-to-business contexts. Specifically, this research answers two main questions: what motivates managers to recommend specific positioning strategies and what motivates related decisions regarding contextual and market conditions?Two studies are undertaken in this research. Using the Delphi method, Study 1 adopted an online scenario-based experimental design related to the positioning decisions of three companies. A panel of expert informants assisted in the design process. Study 2 tested the stability of the results from Study 1 and then extended the analysis through the introduction of an additional dependent variable and market feedback. The results of the scenario-based online surveys are subjected to partial least squares structural equation analyses.The findings are in line with regulatory focus theory and show that RFT can provide motivationally derived answers to questions regarding inter-manager differences in positioning decision-making under similar market and company conditions. The results further show that decisions made by marketing managers in B2B contexts are guided by a desire to achieve congruity (fit) between their regulatory focus and their positioning strategy. Moreover, there is a differential impact of the regulatory foci on the likelihood of changing a recommended strategy.This paper investigates the moderating effects of involvement, valence framing, and market feedback. The study finds that the valence of the recommendation of a positioning strategy moderates the relationship between regulatory focus and the type of positioning strategy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this research is to explore the acceptance of social robots as companions. Understanding what affects the acceptance of humanoid companions may give society tools that will help people overcome loneliness throughout pandemics, such as COVID-19 and beyond. Based on regulatory focus theory, it is proposed that there is a relationship between goal-directed motivation and acceptance of robots as companions. The theory of regulatory focus posits that goal-directed behavior is regulated by two motivational systems—promotion and prevention. People with a promotion focus are concerned about accomplishments, are sensitive to the presence and absence of positive outcomes (gains/non-gains), and have a strategic preference for eager means of goal-pursuit. People with a prevention focus are concerned about security and safety, are sensitive to the absence and presence of negative outcomes (non-losses/losses), and have a strategic preference for vigilant means. Two studies support the notion of a relationship between acceptance of robots as companions and regulatory focus. In Study 1, chronic promotion focus was associated with acceptance of robots, and this association was mediated by loneliness. The weaker the promotion focus, the stronger was the sense of loneliness, and thus the higher was the acceptance of the robots. In Study 2, a situationally induced regulatory focus moderated the association between acceptance of robots and COVID-19 perceived severity. The higher the perceived severity of the disease, the higher was the willingness to accept the robots, and the effect was stronger for an induced prevention (vs. promotion) focus. Models of acceptance of robots are presented. Implications for well-being are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The convergence of social capital and financial intelligence becomes a dynamic catalyst in the realm of post-pandemic challenges, promoting entrepreneurial financial performance to unforeseen levels as businesses use networks, knowledge, and financial expertise to overcome challenges and grasp new opportunities. Hence, the study explores the factors that influence entrepreneurial financial performance of employees in Pakistan's corporate sector. Using two theoretical frameworks, Regulatory Focus Theory and Rubicon Four-Phase Action Model in Entrepreneurship, study identifies essential traits for entrepreneurship and their direct correlation with financial success. The study utilized a survey questionnaire to gather responses from 276 employees of the corporate sector involved in entrepreneurial activities. The findings suggest that financial literacy, financial risk tolerance, entrepreneurial competency, and social capital positively impact an entrepreneur's locus of control and financial intelligence. Financial literacy equips entrepreneurs with necessary skills and knowledge to manage finances effectively, identify potential financial risks, and increase profitability. Financial risk tolerance enables entrepreneurs to understand financial markets better and make sound financial decisions. Entrepreneurial competency leads to sound financial decision-making and control of financial outcomes. Social capital provides valuable resources, information, and support to improve financial decision-making skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Building on the job demands–resources (JD–R) model and regulatory focus theory, this study examined how regulatory foci shaped the effects of different job demands and resources on both negative and positive workplace outcomes among medical staff. Methods: Two independent studies (NStudy 1 = 267; NStudy 2 = 350) were designed for cross-validation. Participants completed a battery of measures evaluating job demands (workload, emotional demands, interpersonal stress), job resources (psychological safety, perceived organizational support, servant leadership), and well-being (job burnout, affective commitment, job satisfaction). Results: Multiple linear regression analyses showed employees' well-being was affected by job demands and resources through energetic and motivational processes, respectively. The deleterious effect of emotional demands on job burnout was pronounced in individuals with weak prevention focus (B = 0.392, standard error [SE] = 0.069, p <.001). Psychological safety (Study 1) and servant leadership (Study 2) had stronger positive associations with motivational outcomes among individuals with weak promotion focus than those with strong promotion focus (B = 0.394, SE = 0.069, p <.001; B = 0.679, SE = 0.121, p <.001; and B = 0.476, SE = 0.072, p <.001, respectively). Conclusion: We used two samples to examine and cross-validate the joint effects of job characteristics and personal traits on workplace well-being among Chinese medical staff. Although heterogenous, the results showed regulatory foci were especially important in determining the effects of job demands and resources on well-being when there was (autonomous) self-regulation in the workplace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study extends the existing discourse on employability. Drawing on regulatory focus theory, we contend that workaholism (a pull factor) and job insecurity (a push factor) constitute two critical antecedents that predict sustained employability. Moreover, we investigate the mediating roles of job crafting and presenteeism. To explain and test these predictions, we employed a mixed-methods approach and conducted two studies. Study 1 was an exploratory study to explore the hidden motives behind presenteeism that can predict sustained employability. The findings (themes) from this study guide the conceptual framework tested in the second study. In Study 2, we conducted a field survey across two waves on 498 employees from private sector educational institutions. The results reveal that both the pull factor (workaholism) and push factor (job insecurity) predict sustained employability through two distinct paths. Furthermore, promotion-oriented job crafting and approach-motives presenteeism serially mediate the relationship between workaholism and sustained employability, whereas prevention-oriented job crafting and avoidance-motives presenteeism serially mediate the relationship between job insecurity and sustained employability. These findings offer valuable insights for organizations and HR managers, enabling them to create more supportive and adaptive work environments that align with varied employee approaches to sustained employability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How might irrelevant events infiltrate voting decisions? The current research introduces a new mechanism—regulatory focus—by which incidental environmental factors can affect vote choice. Regulatory focus theory proposes that there are two fundamental psychological orientations in how people navigate their worlds: A prevention focus tunes cognition towards security, safety, protection, and risk aversion, whereas a promotion focus orients attention toward achieving growth and positive outcomes. We present a model for how wind speed on Election Day affects voting by shifting the regulatory focus of voters. We propose that increased wind speed shifts voters toward selecting prevention-focused options (e.g., restricting immigration, rejecting Brexit, rejecting Scottish Independence) over promotion-focused options (e.g., promoting immigration, favoring Brexit, favoring Scottish Independence). We further argue that wind speed only affects voting when an election clearly offers a choice between prevention and promotion-focused options. Using a mixed-method approach—archival analyses of the "Brexit" vote, the Scotland independence referendum, and 10 years of Swiss referendums, as well as one field study and one experiment—we find that individuals exposed to higher wind speeds become more prevention-focused and more likely to support prevention-focused electoral options. The findings highlight the political importance of incidental environmental factors. Practically, they speak to the benefit of absentee voting and expanding voting periods beyond traditional election days. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Building on the job demands–resources (JD–R) model and regulatory focus theory, this study examined how regulatory foci shaped the effects of different job demands and resources on both negative and positive workplace outcomes among medical staff. Methods Two independent studies (N Study 1 = 267; N Study 2 = 350) were designed for cross-validation. Participants completed a battery of measures evaluating job demands (workload, emotional demands, interpersonal stress), job resources (psychological safety, perceived organizational support, servant leadership), and well-being (job burnout, affective commitment, job satisfaction). Results Multiple linear regression analyses showed employees’ well-being was affected by job demands and resources through energetic and motivational processes, respectively. The deleterious effect of emotional demands on job burnout was pronounced in individuals with weak prevention focus (B = 0.392, standard error [SE] = 0.069, p

Although morality has long been considered an important and integral element of organizational life for employees, research has suggested that moral considerations reduce creativity. However, evidence has hinted that morality may not always be a burden and instead could spark creativity. I develop a model that investigates how work moralization—or the degree to which individuals integrate moral considerations into their work tasks—influences employee creativity. Drawing on regulatory focus theory, I argue that work moralization can lead to prevention-focused cognitions (i.e., moral rumination), which impair and redirect the cognitive resources needed for creativity. However, I also posit that work moralization can lead to promotion-focused cognitions (i.e., cognitive flexibility), leading employees to adopt cognitive approaches that increase creativity. Moreover, integrating research on value congruence, I suggest that work moralizers are the least likely to ruminate—and the most likely to become cognitively flexible—when they perceive that their values are aligned with those of their organization, which ultimately fosters higher levels of creativity. I test my theoretical model with two field studies and a preregistered experiment. This research challenges the consensus that moral considerations generally have a negative impact on creativity, and contributes to research on organizational ethics and creativity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Previous research has highlighted the duality of self-consciousness, which simultaneously plays adaptive and maladaptive roles. This study aims to develop a measure that categorically distinguishes between different types of self-consciousness styles based on the Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT) and examines their relationship with mental health-related indicators. Methods: Data were gathered through an online mental health survey conducted at a University Student Counseling Center in Seoul. The study involved exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and reliability and validity analysis, which resulted in the development of a 14-question Self-Consciousness Type Scale (SCTS). Results: Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses validated the twofactor structure of the SCTS. The fit indices of the final model indicated a good fit, with high internal consistency for both sub-factors. Convergent and discriminant validity were confirmed through correlations between the sub-scales. Cluster analysis identified four distinct subtypes of self-consciousness styles: Growthoriented, Defensive, Ambivalent, and Low-focus self-consciousness. Group difference analysis revealed significant differences in mental health-related variables among the subtypes, supporting the 2 × 2 model of prevention-focused and promotion-focused self-consciousness. Discussion: The findings support the SCTS as a valid measurement tool capable of distinguishing four distinct types of self-consciousness, aligning with the multidimensional model of self-consciousness. The study's limitations and implications were discussed based on the results, emphasizing the potential applications of the SCTS in mental health research and practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Online retailers often recommend new products to consumers. The present study examined the influence of regulatory fit on consumers' click‐through intentions of new products recommended by online retailers. We proposed that regulatory fit resulting from aligning the product's regulatory focus and recommendation message's regulatory orientation positively influences click‐through intention of new product recommendations. In a laboratory study (Study 1), we found that regulatory fit increase consumers' click‐through behaviors of new product recommendations. Study 2 replicated the findings of Study 1 in a controlled online experiment and found support for regulatory fit—click‐through intentions relationship. Study 3 found that regulatory fit increases click‐through intentions for new products but not for existing products. Study 4 supported the mediating role of perceived efficacy and boundary condition of consumer innovativeness in the relationship between regulatory fit and click‐through intentions. This study contributes to the literature on new product adoption, regulatory focus, and product recommendation strategies. Furthermore, it helps online retailors develop effective recommendation strategies for new product recommendations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic prompted a rapid shift from in-person to virtual learning in dental education. This study aims to assess the perceptions of virtual education learning among dental residents and faculty and employ regulatory focus theory (RFT) to understand the impact of motivational orientations on virtual learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: In total, 46 dental residents and 10 faculty members in a dental institution participated in the study (June–August 2021). Questionnaires were used to obtain data on demographics, perceptions of virtual learning, burnout, and RFT types (promotion and prevention focus). Multiple regression analyses were used to examine factors associated with perceptions of virtual learning and burnout. Results: Overall, 70% of residents and 44% of faculty found virtual learning effective. Younger residents with less experience preferred virtual learning more than their older, experienced peers. Residents trained outside the U.S. and Canada favored in-person learning more than those trained within. Furthermore, residents with a higher promotion focus score found virtual learning more interactive for didactic courses. Additionally, 52% of residents experienced burnout, with a higher incidence among females (p = 0.044). Conclusions: Virtual learning is well received by dental residents and faculty, with potential for continued use post-pandemic. Future efforts should focus on creating an inclusive and supportive educational environment that meets the motivational and well-being needs of dental residents and faculty. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Building on the broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions and the regulatory focus theory, we develop a multilevel model to investigate how employees' daily positive and negative emotions trigger daily promotive and prohibitive voice, and further incorporate employees' leader-member exchange (LMX) and trait self-control capacity as boundary conditions of the daily emotions-voice relationships. To test the proposed model, we conducted two studies utilizing the experience sampling method to collect daily data over 10 working days. In Study 1, we gathered 1458 daily responses from 146 employees. In Study 2, we collected 729 matched daily responses from 75 employees and their co-workers, utilizing a multi-phase design. The results of multilevel path-analyses from both studies reveal that: (1) daily positive emotions are positively related with daily promotive voice, and daily promotion focus mediates this association; (2) daily negative emotions are positively related to daily prohibitive voice, however, daily prevention focus does not mediate this relationship; (3) LMX enhances the positive relationship between daily positive emotions and daily promotive voice, and its indirect effect via daily promotion focus; and (4) self-control capacity strengthens the positive relationship between daily negative emotions and daily prohibitive voice, and its indirect effect via daily prevention focus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analyzing the factors that influence maritime manufacturing firms’ environmental behavior is of significant theoretical and practical importance, particularly from a managerial cognition perspective. This study applies the regulatory focus theory to examine the complex relationship between environmental quality, regulation, and firms’ environmental actions. Our findings reveal a U-shaped relationship between regional environmental quality and local firms’ environmental consciousness. In regions with either better or poorer environmental conditions, firms demonstrate higher environmental consciousness. Specifically, firms in regions with better environmental quality exhibit a “promotion focus” on environmental issues, leading to proactive engagement in green innovation. Conversely, firms in regions with poor environmental quality adopt a “prevention focus” by pursuing ISO 14001 certification to maintain legitimacy and mitigate penalties. Moreover, we find that incentive regulations are more effective at stimulating green innovation among firms operating in regions with good environmental quality. In contrast, mandatory regulations drive higher ISO 14001 certification rates among firms located in areas with poor environmental quality. This study offers insights into the internal and external motivators of firms’ environmental behavior, contributing to the literature on corporate environmental responsibility. Additionally, it provides policy recommendations to encourage active participation in environmental initiatives among maritime manufacturing firms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differing from prior studies which explored workplace ostracism's negative impacts, in this study, we try to explore ways to mitigate and harness workplace ostracism to encourage proactive behavior. By drawing on regulatory focus theory, we propose that workplace ostracism can increase proactive behavior via enhanced promotion focus and prevention focus. We collected questionnaire data at multiple time points from employees in private enterprises in China, and a structural equation model was primarily used to test the proposed model. The results of the study indicate that workplace ostracism positively relates to work focus, which, in turn, improves employees' proactive behavior. Visionary leadership only moderates the relationship between workplace ostracism and promotion focus. Employees who perceive high levels of visionary leadership exhibit an increase in promotion focus after experiencing workplace ostracism. This increase in promotion focus further enhances their proactive behavior. These research findings clarify the pathway and boundary conditions through which workplace ostracism positively influences proactive behavior. They also provide valuable insights for enterprises seeking to promote proactive behavior among employees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information content is crucial for public opinion governance, yet its psychological mechanisms remain unclear. This paper endeavors to bridge this knowledge gap by examining the influence of information content on users' psychological responses. Drawing insights from the heuristic-systematic model (HSM) and regulatory focus theory, we constructed a novel cognitive and emotional response model. Regression analysis reveals that susceptibility strongly influences primary cognitive responses, while severity affects secondary ones. Susceptibility has a stronger impact on emotional responses than severity. Promotion-focus users are less influenced by severity and susceptibility than prevention-focus users. These results offer valuable insights for emergency management strategies and enhance individuals' resilience in coping with the psychological toll of emergencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regulatory focus theory theorizes that there are two distinct dispositional foci of self-regulation (promotion focus and prevention focus) that impact individuals' motivational tendencies to achieve their decision-making processes. This study integrates regulatory focus theory with upper echelons theory to investigate how CEO regulatory focus (i.e., higher degrees of promotion focus relative to prevention focus) influences corporate strategic outcomes, particularly regarding the pursuit of corporate social responsibility (CSR) performance and firm performance. This study uses data collected from the annual reports of S&P 1500 firms in the US from 2000 to 2018. Results show a negative association between CEOs who are predominantly promotion-focused and CSR performance. This negative association is diminished in firms with better corporate governance (i.e., higher CEO equity compensation and greater institutional ownership). The results also show that CSR plays a mediating role in the relationship between CEO regulatory focus and firm performance. These findings not only contribute to the existing literature by highlighting the role of CEO regulatory focus in shaping CSR initiatives but also shed light on its implications for firm performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine tacit knowledge sharing within information systems development (ISD) projects by exploring the combination of social interdependence theory and regulatory focus theory (RFT). Design/methodology/approach: A survey was conducted on 198 ISD professionals to investigate the effect of social interdependence on tacit knowledge sharing. The survey data were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), and the results were discussed. Findings: This study reveals that team members tend to share tacit knowledge in a way characterized by cooperative interdependence, and different patterns of social interdependence have an impact on tacit knowledge sharing. The RFT explains the disparities in attitude toward tacit knowledge sharing. Specifically, individuals with a prevention-focused orientation positively moderate the impact of competitive interdependence on tacit knowledge sharing, while those with a promotion-focused orientation have a negative moderating effect on the effect of competitive interdependence on tacit knowledge sharing. Moreover, promotion-focused individuals negatively moderate the effect of cooperative interdependence on tacit knowledge sharing. Originality/value: The study identifies important aspects of social interdependence in ISD projects that affect the management of tacit knowledge. Furthermore, the study shows that the influence of cooperative and competitive interdependence on tacit knowledge sharing is moderated by the regulatory focus of an individual, providing new insights into ISD knowledge management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Regulatory Focus Theory is an important theory in the fields of social and human sciences that explains how people pursue their goals. However, despite its importance, a consensus on the optimal scale for assessing individual regulatory focus remains inconclusive. The comparisons of the two primary scales used in studies, the Regulatory Focus Questionnaire (RFQ) and the General Regulatory Focus Measure (GRFM), have shown a lack of consensus. Considering the importance of the Regulatory Focus Theory, the widespread use of the GRFM scale, and the advantages of the forced-choice format over the ranking format, this article aims to propose and validate an adaptation of the GRFM scale to the forced-choice format (GRFM-FC) using Item Response Theory (IRT) analysis. Because the GRFM scale is usually included in studies along with other scales and measures, a scale with fewer items, such as the GRFM-FC, can facilitate and broaden its use by saving time and effort, increasing the response rate of surveys, and reducing respondent biases, such as leniency and severity, central tendency, and social desirability. The new GRFM-FC is more efficient than the GRFM to differentiate between the two types of regulatory focus, contributing to its predictive validity. In addition to solving the problem of ipsative data, IRT analysis provides a more precise informational capacity for each scale item than the Classical Test Theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This present research aims to clarify the intricate conjunction of enterprise social media (ESM) utilization and employee agility with a main focus on uncovering the underlying mechanisms that work through the mediating influence of work engagement and the moderating influence of regulatory focus. Drawing upon regularity focus theory, 353 Chinese samples of ESM users in organizational contexts are analyzed using SPSS 23.0. The empirical findings substantiate a robust and significant positive linkage between ESM usage and worker agility. Further reinforcing the model, the mediating role of work engagement is established as it channels the impact of ESM usage on worker agility. Turning to the moderating effects, the study unveils the differential impact of prevention focus and promotion focus, wherein individuals with a lower prevention focus exhibit a more pronounced positive linkage between ESM usage and worker agility. Similarly, individuals with a higher promotion focus demonstrate a heightened positive association between ESM usage and worker agility. By comprehensively inspecting the intricate dynamics of ESM usage, work engagement, and regulatory focus, this study enhances our theoretical understanding of how these factors synergistically shape employee agility, ultimately furnishing organizations with invaluable insights to foster and cultivate an agile workforce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We provide an overview of instruments related to the three most representative theories of approach-avoidance (Monni et al., in Personality and Individual Differences 166:110163, 2020): The Regulatory focus theory (Higgins, in American Psychologist 52:1280–1300, 1997; Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 30:1–46, 1998), the Reinforcement sensitivity theory (Gray, in Behaviour Research and Therapy 8:249–266, 1970; The psychology of fear and stress, CUP Archive, 1987; as reported by Gray & McNaughton (The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of Septo-hippocampal system, Oxford University Press, 2000), and the Approach-Avoidance temperament theory (Elliot & Thrash, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82:804–812, 2002; Journal of Personality 78:865–906, 2010). We examined published peer-reviewed empirical studies guided by three aims: (1) providing a brief description and comparison of the basic constructs of the three theories; (2) offering an overview of the approach-avoidance assessments that have been used in the literature; (3) discussing the strengths and weaknesses of these methodologies and suggesting which might be the most effective technique according to the constructs' operationalization and the psychometric-procedural quality to help researchers choose the reference theory and method best suited to their research focus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: In this research, we test the hypothesis that promotion‐focused eagerness does not yield the same evaluative benefits in the workplace for women as it does for men. Regulatory focus theory suggests that promotion‐focused eagerness potentially casts a person in a favorable light in the eyes of superiors. Nevertheless, we propose that promotion‐focused eagerness violates the prescriptive gender‐stereotypical expectations that people have of women. The gender deviance (i.e., not acting in line with gender expectations) that occurs when a woman is promotion‐focused causes this woman to pay a "gender tax" that a promotion‐focused man does not pay. First, we conducted two experiments wherein managers (N = 127) or students (N = 236) evaluated qualified fictional job applicants: in both experiments, compared with an identical male applicant, the promotion‐focused female job applicant was valued less, as evidenced by a lower starting salary offer. Second, in a dyadic study (N = 474 dyads), male employees' promotion focus was positively associated with their manager's evaluations of them, whereas female employees' promotion focus was not. Our results show that promotion‐focused women are not valued as positively as their male counterparts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Entrepreneurial orientation (EO) has been identified as a central construct to understand how firms compete and perform effectively in increasingly competitive environments. Drawing on regulatory focus theory, this study examines how chief executive officers' (CEOs') regulatory focus, a motivational attribute that entails a promotion focus for growth and a prevention focus for safety, affects the EO of small and medium‐sized enterprises (SMEs). Results from 110 UK SMEs show promotion focus positively, and prevention focus negatively affect EO when the two foci are examined independently. Our findings also demonstrate that EO varies significantly among firms led by CEOs with different combinations of the two foci. Specifically, firms engaged in significantly higher levels of EO when they are led by CEOs with a high rather than a low promotion focus, where prevention focus is at a high level. This study extends the literature by uncovering regulatory focus as a motivational microfoundation of EO. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consumers’ personality traits significantly influence their perceptions regarding social media advertising. While prior research on consumers’ purchasing intentions in social networking sites advertising has mainly focused on advertising valence antecedents, it is crucial to recognize that consumers’ susceptibility to advertising persuasion, particularly in terms of empathic expression, varies based on a key criterion: whether consumers are driven to attain a specific desired state or are more inclined to avoid an undesirable state. Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT) posits that individuals operate under distinct motivational mechanisms that govern their determination to achieve desired goals, influencing how they process and evaluate advertising messages. In light of RFT, we conducted an online survey with 524 valid responses, utilizing partial least squares (PLS) for research model analysis. The findings revealed that promotion-focused individuals have positively influenced perceptions of social media ad effectiveness (informativeness, ad creativity, perceived relevance, and emotional appeal). In contrast, prevention-focused individuals negatively perceived social media ad effectiveness. Furthermore, this study highlighted that perceived relevance and emotional appeal have a more significant impact on attitudes toward expressing empathy than informativeness and ad creativity.

Environmental sustainability is a common practice of global brands, with 90% of the top 100 Interbrand global brands making statements about environmental efforts on their websites. In this research, the authors explore how a consumer's global–local identity can affect consumer engagement with a global brand's environmental sustainability initiative. Specifically, they examine consumer engagement in response to environmental messaging based on regulatory focus, spatial construal, and temporal construal. They theorize and find, across six experimental studies, that consumers with a strong global identity are more engaged with environmental sustainability initiatives when messaging includes frames congruent with their global identity, specifically promotion frames coupled with distant spatial frames and with proximal temporal frames. For consumers with a local identity, these regulatory and construal messaging frames do not impact consumer engagement with environmental sustainability initiatives. Consumer environmental mindset mediates the effect of global–local identity on consumer engagement with environmental sustainability initiatives when such congruent frames are used, and consumer eagerness to act provides additional process explanation for the asymmetric spatial (distant) and temporal (proximal) construal effects. The findings have significant implications for the design of global brand and environmental policy messaging, particularly for consumers with a strong global identity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Innovativeness and performance are keys to understanding the capability of SMEs. However, scant research examines the motivational frames that enhance behaviors, such as innovation, in SMEs. Regulatory focus theory provides the lens through which to we examined how SME owner motivation impacts innovation and firm performance, given that the SME owner primarily displays either a promotion or prevention focus. As such, we hypothesize the moderating effects of dominant regulatory foci radical on the relationship between innovation and SME performance. Based on a sample of 422 small business owners, we find a positive and significant direct relationship between both incremental and radical innovation on performance. Further, we report that prevention focus heightens the positive relationship between incremental innovation and performance, while radical innovation negatively impacts the relationship between radical innovation and performance; thus, highlighting the critical nature of strategic alignment that exists between regulatory focus strategy, innovation type and performance outcomes. This study brings the entrepreneur back into focus for small business research and investigates the intersection of firm-level and individual-level units of analyses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to adapt positive self-talk for mobile devices by evaluating content suitability for diverse negative emotional states. To this end, we focus on four different negative emotions: anger, sadness, shame, and anxiety. Based on Regulatory Focus Theory, we categorized eight types of self-talk messages as either promotion- or prevention-focused. The latter are designed to guide individuals away from negative outcomes by emphasizing the assurance of safety and comfort amid adverse emotional states. In contrast, promotion-focused messages aim to lead individuals toward positive outcomes, highlighting hopes, accomplishments, and advancements. We then examined how users' preferences for certain messaging types vary depending on their specific emotional states. To explore and categorize mobile-based self-talk, we conducted two distinct surveys. In Study 1, participants were exposed to vignettes designed to induce four types of moods (i.e., anger, anxiety, sadness, and shame). In Study 2, participants encountered a single vignette (e.g., anger) that corresponded to their most recently experienced negative emotion. The results indicate that messages preference is influenced by the individual's mood. Both Study 1 and 2 confirm a preference for prevention-focused messages among individuals experiencing anger or anxiety. In contrast, promotion-focused messages were preferred by people who feeling sadness and shame. This study offers crucial insights for developing mHealth and emotional regulation applications. Moreover, this paper strongly underscores the need to customize self-talk messages to users' specific negative emotions to enhance the efficacy of emotional regulation through mobile technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marketers and consumers are adopting chatbots widely. However, the benefits of this technology remain unclear due to a lack of understanding about individual differences in consumers' purchase decisions when interacting with chatbots. This research investigates the influence of individual differences in promotion focus on purchase likelihood for the products recommended by chatbots. Two experiments demonstrated that consumers generally report a lower purchase likelihood for products recommended by chatbots (vs humans). However, compared to consumers with a low promotion focus, consumers with a high promotion focus report a higher purchase likelihood for the products. The findings also suggest that the relationship between consumer individual differences in promotion focus and purchase likelihood is mediated by engagement. By applying both regulatory focus and regulatory fit theories, the present study provides insights into how promotion focus influences purchase likelihood for products recommended by chatbots. Marketers can utilise both chronic and situational promotion focus to improve consumers' reactions to chatbots using segmentation and promotion‐focus‐related words, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although research has shown that employees' help reception always promotes future help provision, the distinctions between the types of repaying behaviors have been overlooked in organizational research. Thus, for the first time, the present study distinguishes between two types of repaying behaviors—pay-it-back (returning a favor to the help provider) and pay-it-forward (reciprocating a favor to a third party)—in the workplace and investigates their emotional and motivational mechanisms using broaden-and-build and regulatory focus theory. Analyzing three-wave data collected from 562 employees in China, the results show that while receiving help results in both pay-it-back and pay-it-forward behaviors through the mediation of gratitude, through the mediation of indebtedness, receiving help leads only to pay-it-back behaviors. Moreover, employees' regulatory focus moderates the associations between receiving help and emotions and repaying behaviors. Specifically, at a high promotion focus level, employees tend to experience a higher level of gratitude after receiving help, thus engaging in more pay-it-back and pay-it-forward behaviors; at a high prevention focus level, employees tend to experience a higher level of indebtedness, thus engaging only in pay-it-back behaviors. These findings therefore deepen the understanding of the "help leads to help" phenomenon and its underlying mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Being ostracized by one's supervisor (i.e., supervisor ostracism) indicates a strained supervisor-employee relationship. Due to the hierarchical difference between employees and their supervisors and the fundamental need to belong, supervisor ostracism could profoundly impact employees' emotions and work behaviors. Although plenty of studies have found that ostracism leads to negative emotions, little research focuses on ostracized employees' strategies to regulate emotions. This study investigated employees' emotional labor (i.e., surface acting and deep acting) as interpersonal interaction strategies to deal with supervisor ostracism. According to the regulatory focus theory and the dualistic model of interpersonal harmony, we also postulate that employee harmony value (i.e., harmony enhancement versus disintegration avoidance) can affect what specific form of emotional labor they use. Based on daily data collected from 122 full-time employees in two consecutive weeks (i.e., 10 workdays), we found that supervisor ostracism was positively related to employees' surface and deep acting. Additionally, disintegration avoidance strengthened the relationship between supervisor ostracism and surface acting, whereas harmony enhancement strengthened the relationship between supervisor ostracism and deep acting. Further, we found that surface acting mediated the positive relationship between supervisor ostracism and dysfunctional resistance toward the supervisor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maintaining the interorganizational relationship is a vital goal in the construction industry, and how to promote relational behavior in the project has received widespread attention. A contract is one of the commonly used control mechanisms in project management. Due to the contradictory conclusions of existing research, there is a lack of explicit guidance and detailed elaboration on how a contract impacts relational behavior. According to regulatory focus theory, this paper examines how different dimensions of contractual complexity affect motivation for different relational behaviors. This research decomposes contractual complexity as control, coordination, and adaptation from a functional perspective, classes regulatory focus into prevention focus and promotion focus and differentiates relational behavior as flexibility, information exchange, and solidarity. By conducting a questionnaire survey, the results reveal that the paths of three contractual functions on relational behavior and the mediating roles of prevention and promotion focus differ. Specifically, contractual control directly affects three dimensions of relational behavior, contractual coordination increases information exchange by triggering a prevention focus, and contractual adaptation enhances flexibility, information exchange, and solidarity by evoking a promotion focus and also directly enhances solidarity. These findings explain the motivation of behaviors in interorganizational relationships from the perspective of social psychology and offer new insights into how to cultivate relational behavior and the linkage between contractual and relational governance in construction projects. This study is helpful for construction practitioners in developing a nuanced understanding of interorganizational cooperation from the view of ex ante contract design and social psychology. Project managers need to allocate their resources properly, focus on different aspects of contract design and shape different regulatory focuses to foster specific relational behavior. First, drawing up a detailed contract is costly, and construction practitioners can choose what to focus on when resources and efforts are limited. On the premise that the contract is adequate to reduce the possibility of opportunism, practitioners should spend time and effort infusing flexibility into a contract by affording guidance on uncertain matters. Second, when executing a construction project, if contractual complexity has been established, it is also possible to promote relational behavior by adjusting the regulatory focus of the parties. Project managers should pay attention to the psychological state of both parties in the construction project, since situational triggers can evoke changes in the psychological state of the parties, which in turn affects the motivation for behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Regulatory focus theory proposes two self-regulatory systems: promotion focus—related to fulfilling aspirations and maximizing positive outcomes—and prevention focus—related to fulfilling responsibilities and avoiding negative outcomes. Building on research demonstrating associations between regulatory focus and weight outcomes, a proof-of-concept weight control intervention framed intervention procedures in terms of promotion or prevention focus and descriptively examined whether the impact of the intervention conditions depended on dispositional regulatory focus. Methods: After random assignment to control (received pamphlet on diet and physical activity), promotion, or prevention conditions (1.5-hour baseline sessions; detailed manuals; 1-hour sessions at 3 months), community participants from a metropolitan area in the United States (N = 57; age M = 40; BMI M = 30.9) completed the Regulatory Focus Questionnaire and were weighed at baseline, 3 months, and 6 months. Longitudinal analysis was conducted with SAS Proc Mixed using restricted maximum likelihood estimation. Results: Estimated weight change was -2.99 kg, 95% CI [-4.65, -1.32], in the promotion condition, -1.70 kg, 95% CI [-3.29, -0.12], in the prevention condition, and -0.18 kg, 95% CI [-1.42, 1.05], in the control condition. Exploratory analyses revealed that for relatively more promotion-focused participants, estimated weight change was -1.43 kg, 95% CI [-3.38, 0.51], in the promotion condition, +0.48 kg, 95% CI [-1.01, 1.97], in the prevention condition, and -1.09 kg, 95% CI [-2.32, 0.14], in the control condition. For relatively more prevention-focused participants, estimated weight change was -5.19 kg, 95% CI [-7.14, -3.25], in the promotion condition, -3.35 kg, 95% CI [-4.83, -1.86], in the prevention condition, and +0.42 kg, 95% CI [-0.81, 1.65], in the control condition. Conclusions: Results suggest that self-directed, promotion-focused interventions may be effective and that tailoring to self-regulatory dispositions may not be of additional benefit in initiating weight loss. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent advances in entrepreneurial investment decisions research implied that early-stage investment decisions, given their extreme uncertainty and unpredictability, were results of investors' intuition processes. In other words, investors manage the high risks of early-stage investment decisions by finding justifications of future value against risk in the invested entrepreneurial projects. Although some studies have discussed the decision-making process of mid- and late-stage venture capital, there is still a lack of discussion on the early-stage investment decision-making mechanism. In this paper, we draw on regulatory fit theory to theorize how the fit of regulatory focus between investor and entrepreneur could lead to the investor's early-stage investment decisions in terms of investment amount and speed. Across three experimental studies, we found empirical support for our proposed model. Specifically, investors who have similar regulatory focus with the entrepreneurs are more likely to invest a larger amount of funds at a faster speed. We further found that investor's sense of rightness mediates the relationship between regulatory fit and investment decision, and investor's previous investment experience plays a moderating role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research shows that CEOs who are sensitive to maximizing gains (promotion focus) engage in more socially oriented initiatives, while CEOs who are sensitive to avoiding losses or harm (prevention focus) attend more to shareholder concerns. Our point of departure, however, is that many social initiatives are of the "do no harm" type that involve efforts to avoid burdening stakeholders with social and economic costs. Integrating research on strategic leadership and regulatory focus, we develop a framework for understanding the relevance of CEO regulatory focus for workplace safety. We argue that firms with prevention-focused CEOs have fewer employee injuries than firms with promotion-focused CEOs as these latter CEOs impose aggressive workloads on employees. Drawing on regulatory fit theory, we further identify two contextual factors that attenuate or accentuate CEO motivation to pursue harm-reducing or growth-maximizing goals. Whereas analyst downgrades mitigate the influence of prevention focus by motivating CEOs to avoid missing their obligations to shareholders, environmental munificence strengthens the influence of promotion focus on injuries by motivating CEOs to take advantage of growth opportunities in the environment. Based on a sample of S&P 500 firms and injury data from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) from 2002 to 2011, we find support for our predictions. The results illustrate the unforeseen consequences of CEO regulatory focus on employee interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Charitable donation appeals can be framed to highlight the attainment of desirable outcomes (promotion framing) or the avoidance of undesirable situations (prevention framing). Drawing from regulatory focus theory, construal level theory, and the linguistic categorization model, this study reveals how the impact of the two messages frames can be influenced by the emotional state of the message recipient. Participants had more favorable attitudes toward charity advertisements, were more likely to donate to a food bank, and placed more value on donating when charity ads highlighted desirable end-states, but only if they were in a positive mood. In a negative mood, participants responded better to charity ads that described how donations could be used to avoid undesirable situations. Analysis showed these effects might occur because people process information differently under the two mood conditions and the two message frames trigger different motivational mind-sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Consumers' personality traits significantly influence their perceptions regarding social media advertising. While prior research on consumers' purchasing intentions in social networking sites advertising has mainly focused on advertising valence antecedents, it is crucial to recognize that consumers' susceptibility to advertising persuasion, particularly in terms of empathic expression, varies based on a key criterion: whether consumers are driven to attain a specific desired state or are more inclined to avoid an undesirable state. Regulatory Focus Theory (RFT) posits that individuals operate under distinct motivational mechanisms that govern their determination to achieve desired goals, influencing how they process and evaluate advertising messages. In light of RFT, we conducted an online survey with 524 valid responses, utilizing partial least squares (PLS) for research model analysis. The findings revealed that promotion-focused individuals have positively influenced perceptions of social media ad effectiveness (informativeness, ad creativity, perceived relevance, and emotional appeal). In contrast, prevention-focused individuals negatively perceived social media ad effectiveness. Furthermore, this study highlighted that perceived relevance and emotional appeal have a more significant impact on attitudes toward expressing empathy than informativeness and ad creativity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The impact of climate change on human health was identified as a priority for the UN COP26 conference. In this article, we consider climate‐induced changes to mortality risks and how to incorporate these formally in the policy appraisal process. In the United Kingdom (UK), the Value of Statistical Life (VSL) is used to monetarize the benefits of policies to reduce mortality risks but it remains an open, empirical question as to whether the current VSL (£2.14 million per fatality prevented, December 2021 values) for traffic accidents should be applied in other contexts without any modification and particularly for extreme weather event fatalities. Using a representative sample of the UK population, we aim to estimate and better understand the trade‐offs people make when comparing mortality risks, drawing on psychological insights from construal level and regulatory focus theories. We design a stated preference survey using a relative valuation framework with nonmonetary, risk–risk trade‐off questions between extreme weather event and traffic accident mortality risks. We find evidence of an extreme weather event risk premium of 1.2–1.6 (implying a climate‐related VSL of £2.52–£3.41 million). We also find that participants who are psychologically close to climate change (based on construal level theory), weigh reducing extreme weather event mortality risks almost two times that of reducing traffic accident mortality risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across two experimental studies, this research puts forward the concept of avatars' self‐representation and regulatory message framing to discover psychological involvement and masstige value in retail and tourism platforms, demonstrating how avatar self‐representation and message framing can potentially indicate Metaverse psychological involvement in the Metaverse. The proteus effect was applied to study avatar falsity. The promotion/prevention regulatory focus theory was employed to examine the effect of message framing in hypothetical retail and tourism platforms in Study 1 (n = 846). Further determinants of masstige value were captured using the masstige theory. In parallel with Study 1, Study 2 (n = 817) adopted real‐world examples of the Metaverse—Gucci Vault Plaza (Retail) and Baidu Xi Rang (Tourism) to equally examine the effect of users' psychological involvement on Metaverse involvement via masstige value. Respondents were allocated to either a self‐promotion or self‐verification avatar condition. The results demonstrated significant downstream effects of these specific self‐promotion and self‐verification categories, thereby contributing to an important conceptual subdimension in the measurement and understanding of online self‐perception within the context of avatars. When participants imagined using a self‐verification avatar in the prevention‐focused message condition, significant effects were observed. Further, a Metaverse platform is a critical factor that affects masstige. Exploring the masstige value at the Metaverse demonstrates the relationship between self‐enhancement and masstige desire for luxury that underscores Metaverse involvement. The research presented a critical insight into the carryover effects of self‐representation of avatars that can establish a new form of meta‐interaction. This research provides insights into technology in virtual retail and tourism Metaverse applications to provide users with more psychologically authentic solutions within the Metaverse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From the perspective of regulatory focus theory, the influencing mechanism of pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs) in the private domain on behaviors in the public domain were analyzed by revealing the mediating effect of the status quo maintenance and the moderating effect of the prevention focus orientation. The study results show that PEBs in the private domain significantly promote individuals’ PEBs in the public domain. The status quo maintenance partially mediates the relationship between PEBs in the private and public domains. Specifically, individuals with a high-level prevention focus orientation strengthen the relationship between the PEBs in the private domain and the status quo maintenance, and that of the PEBs in the public domain. Therefore, individuals with high-level prevention focus will more likely engage in subsequent PEBs in the public domain after their initial PEBs in the private domain due to their increased status quo maintenance degree. Policymakers and practitioners should pay attention to the prevention-repetition effect and use the PEBs in the private domain to promote those in the public domain.

Despite the role of ethical voice in promoting ethics in working units, scant attention has been devoted to the emergence and boundary conditions of collective ethical voice. In accordance with the integration between regulatory focus theory and social identity theory, this research explores the antecedents and moderators of promotive ethical voice and prohibitive ethical voice in working units. Hierarchical regression analysis of field data on 632 employees and 62 leaders at three Chinese organizations supports the hypotheses. Faultlines negatively relate to promotive ethical voice and prohibitive ethical voice in groups. Role ambiguity moderates the effect of two forms of ethical voice on citizenship behaviors and task performance in groups. Based on regulatory focus and social identity theory, this study contributes to existing research by revealing faultlines to be barriers of collective promotive and prohibitive ethical voice. Additionally, this research provides a novel lens to understand the underlying interaction mechanisms through which role ambiguity regulates the effect of ethical voice on performance in groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]