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In 235 ce, at the beginning of Late Antiquity, the Roman army was not all that different from the army of 14 ce at the end of the reign of Augustus. By the seventh century, and in the aftermath of the Arab invasion of the Near East, the Roman army had been transformed, with significant differences with regard to its organization, size, tactics, strategy, and operations. What had been a heavily armed force, which sought to engage its foes head-on and whose primary strength lay in its infantry, had become a force that often sought to avoid pitched battle unless left with no alternative, and whose strength lay in its cavalry. Keywords: Late Antiquity; military history; Roman history

This article focuses on the democracy and legitimacy debates in Zimbabwe after the ouster of Robert Mugabe from power by his erstwhile ally, Emmerson Mnangagwa, in November 2017. President Mnangagwa popularized the terms “Second Republic” and “New Dispensation” to show that his regime differed from Mugabe’s in terms of governance style. The position of this article is that Mnangagwa’s regime could not abandon the system established under the reign of Mugabe. Instead, it argues that the Second Republic reflects continuities of the Mugabe era being transposed into a quasi-military edifice whose commandist approaches denigrate cries for democracy and transparency. This qualitative research draws on data from interviews with political elites in the opposition and ruling parties as well as secondary sources. Este artigo centra-se nos debates sobre democracia e legitimidade no Zimbábue após a destituição de Robert Mugabe do poder pelo seu antigo aliado, Emmerson Mnangagwa, em novembro de 2017. O Presidente Mnangagwa popularizou os termos “Segunda República” e “Nova Dispensação” para mostrar que o seu regime era diferente do de Mugabe em termos de estilo de governação. A posição deste artigo é que o regime de Mnangagwa não podia abandonar o sistema estabelecido sob o reinado de Mugabe. Em vez disso, argumenta que a Segunda República reflete a continuidade da era Mugabe transposta para um edifício quase militar cujas abordagens “comandantes” denigrem os apelos à democracia e à transparência. Esta pesquisa qualitativa baseia-se em dados de entrevistas com elites políticas dos partidos na oposição e no poder, assim como em fontes secundárias.

The Arab Caliphate was famous for its highly developed book culture and the fact that it turned the Arabic language into the international language of communication, science and art throughout the Arab-Muslim East. During the reign of the Abbasid dynasty, the Arab-Muslim civilization is experiencing the peak of its heyday and power. Under the Abbasids, Baghdad became not only the political, but also the cultural capital of the Caliphate. The famous House of Wisdom opens in Baghdad, where a large-scale translation activity has been carried out for centuries. The Abbasids achieved amazing success because they were able to absorb the rich cultural traditions of the peoples they conquered. At the same time, they pursued their own political goals - the strengthening and development of the Arab Caliphate. The Abbasids were not pioneers in translation, they skillfully used and developed the pre-Islamic developments of the Iranians in this area. It is important to study the reasons why the Arab Caliphate at one time reached historical heights. This is necessary in order for the lessons of the past to serve the good of the present.

smr-Xt is the Horus name of an early Egyptian king. He was the 7th king of the 1st Dynasty (2930-2920 BC). He was the first Egyptian ruler with a fully developed Nebty name. Manetho called Semerkhet “Semempses” and credited him with a reign continued for 18 years. On the other hand, Turin Canon credited him with a long reign of 72 years. Nowadays, Egyptologists consider both opinions as kind of exaggerations and credited Semerkhet with a reign of 8 ½ years. The last opinion is based on the Cairo Stone Inscription, where the complete reign of Semerkhet has been recorded. Semerkhet is well documented in archeological records. His name was found on vessels made of schist, alabaster, marble and breccia. His name also appeared on ivory tags and jar seals. These various objects that bear Semerkhet’s name and titles came from Abydos and Saqqara. This research aims to study and analyze the reigning period of the king Semerkhet, to collect the representations of the king in order to understand his titles, and to spot the light on the king’s monuments and works. The research framework is an historical, artistic study for tracking the monumental works of king Semerkhet. The research is a combined study between both descriptive and analytical sides.

Sefkhet-abwy was the alternate name of goddess Seshat. This name means “seven-horned”. This seven-pointed emblem which was appeared on Seshat’s head in most of her scenes, was the origin of the name for Seshat. Sefkhet-abwy first appeared in the reign of king Tuthmosis III (dynasty XVIII) and seemed to be more than a version of Seshat. She was the goddess of writing and temple libraries, and was known as a scribe and record keeper in ancient Egypt. This research aims to spot light on Sefkhet-abwy, her role in the temples and her relationship with the other deities.

During Charles vii’s reign the number of political specula tended to decrease; many authors however continued to offer to the king a mirror in which he could see what action he had to take in such troubled times. Writings produced by Jean Juvénal des Ursins on different occasions convey a double image of kingship. On the one hand, an idealised kingship that carried out the « poesté modérée » (moderate power) advocated by many clerical reformers ; on the other hand, a darker picture, one that reflected a hesitant, careless and passive man who was not really king. This dark side of the mirror aimed to urge the king to do his duty according to the old Carolingian tradition, but without undermining the majesty of the monarch. Période marquée par un certain ralentissement de la production spéculaire, le règne de Charles vii a néanmoins été riche d’une réflexion politique destinée à tendre au prince le miroir de ce qu’il avait à faire en des temps troublés. Les textes très circonstanciels produits par Jean Juvénal des Ursins reflètent une image dédoublée de la royauté : idéalisée et accomplissant la « poesté modérée » chère à maints réformateurs ecclésiastiques ; noircie et peignant un monarque hésitant, négligent et amorphe qui ne correspond pas forcément à la vérité du personnage. Cette face sombre du miroir vise à admonester le roi selon la vieille tradition qui remonte aux temps carolingiens et à rendre le monarque conscient de ses devoirs, sans aucunement attenter à la majesté royale.

The article examines how the image of the “Bright Hall” ( Mingtang 明堂) was used in the ideological policy of Wu Zetian 武則天 (624–705). The Empress Wu Zetian was the first and only woman in the history of China who received the male title of em peror (Huangdi 皇帝) and founded a new state – Great Zhou (Da Zhou 大 周; 690–705). Traditionally, the history of the "Bright Hall" dates back to the Archaic times. The Ming[1] tang was one of the most important symbols of the Empire and also a political, administrative and religious centre. During the period under review, the Mingtang performed functions of its archaic prototype, which, most likely, should have put the Empress on a par with the semi-legendary rulers from Antiquity. Besides, The Empress was a patron of the Buddhist teachings. This has found its reflection in the type of official ceremonies held there. The “Bright Hall” became the place for holding Buddhist religious events. The “Heavenly Hall” (Tiantang 天堂), which became the seat of the majestic statue of Buddha, was also included in the complex. During the reign of Wu Zetian, the “Bright Hall” had to be built twice after the first Mingtang (constructed in 689) was destroyed by fire. The Empress ordered the complex to be re-built as soon as possible. This fact shows how important was considered the "Bright Hall" for the purpose of modelling the image of an ideal ruler. While observing the events, which took place in Mingtang, one can notice how diverse was the religious policy of Wu Zetian. It is also evident that the Empress tried to make Buddhist ceremonies a part of the state rituals. There is also no doubt that the purpose of holding both traditional and Buddhist ceremonies in the “Bright Hall” was to confirm the legitimacy of Wu Zetian as an Emperor.

Мақолада кавийлар тарихи, атаманинг моҳияти ёритилади. Аҳамонийлар даврида Бақтрияда Кавий унвони қўлланилмаган, империянинг барча ҳудудида бўлгани сингари бу ерда ҳам сатраплик жорий этилган ва икки юз йил давом этган Аҳамонийлар империяси даврида Кавийлик бошқаруви билан бирга , Кавийлик ибораси ҳам унутилган. Аҳамонийлар ҳукмронлигидан кейинги даврларда, хусусан, Буюк Александр, Салавкийлар, Юнон-Бақтрия, Кушонлар салтанати даврида зарб қилинган тангаларда кавий титули қўлланилмаган.

En la actualidad, existen diferentes comprensiones del primer artículo del contenido de la fe cristiana, lo que hace necesario un análisis de dichas interpretaciones a partir de categorías teológicas. Esta investigación busca develar el sentido del primer artículo del contenido de la fe cristiana en la producción teológica reciente, por medio de un ejercicio hermenéutico, analizándola bibliométrica y categorialmente, usando como mediación el software para el análisis de datos cualitativos NVivo. Se concluye que la literatura teológica reciente aborda el sentido del primer artículo de la fe cristiana a partir de la existencia, concepto, definición de Dios y sus atributos como su poder, actuación, la creación, revelación y reinado. Aunque el material encontrado es escaso comparado con otros temas o áreas de conocimiento que puedan explorarse en estas herramientas, el hecho se explica porque, normalmente, no ha sido una preocupación para los teólogos la publicación en revistas de alto impacto. La forma de abordar a Dios en la literatura contemporánea puede ser enriquecida teniendo en cuenta contextos determinados como la pobreza, la discriminación, el sufrimiento, la violencia, la trata de personas, los migrantes y las realidades políticas, entre otros, de tal manera que no sea tan solo una reflexión metafísica de Dios, sino también histórica e inmanente, e incluso con investigaciones interreligiosas que amplíen la concepción del Dios cristiano y responda a preguntas que la sociedad contemporánea se hace en su vida cotidiana.

The issues of sexuality have been very contentious in Africa more so after the legalization of same-sex marriages by the U.S. Supreme Court in June 2015 under the President Obama reign. Africans have resented the way sexuality is understood and practiced in the west and has termed it un-African. Some scholars and indeed African leaders have argued that the attitude towards sexuality is a modern practice which is being introduced and even forced to Africa by modernity and influenced greatly by the western worldview. In a modern setting, different sexual orientation has been accepted as a lifestyle and has been institutionalized. Although African does not refute the fact that there were and indeed still are people with different sexual orientation, they do not find it right to institutionalize it since according to African culture, this is an abnormality that needs to be corrected, sympathized with and tolerated. To that end, African peoples assisted those with a different sexual orientation to live normal lives as much as possible. At the same time, the community was kind and tolerant and never banished or mistreated them based on their sexual orientation. This paper will attempt to show the attitude taken by the African people, the process of assisting those with different sexual orientation and how they were incorporated into the society. The paper will draw valuable lessons to be learned by modernity and which will correspond to African Christianity in accordance with the teaching of Jesus Christ

Minting own coin is one of the attributes of state formation. The first coins of the Old Rus are represented by gold and silver specimens dating from the late tenth — early eleventh century. Gold coins are very rare, the silver ones are presented much more. Most modern researchers believe that the production of silver coins was started by Volodymyr Sviatoslavych and ended under Yaroslav Volodymyrovych after the beginning of his reign in Kyiv. In 2020 the third known hoard of silver coins was discovered near Gorodnytsia village, Novohrad-Volynskyi district, Zhytomyr region. It was found accidently by local resident S. M. Komar who in the next day after discovery handed it over to the authorities which was recorded in the relevant documents. The expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine conducted archaeological research at the hoard location. The place where the silver coins have been occurred was recorded. Several more coins were found in the pit where the hoard was and nearby. Surrounding area was examined. Near the hoard the presence of land- and waterways, which functioned in the medieval period, was recorded. Near the river Sluch there are convenient places for crossing. During the exploration of the area adjacent to the hoard in order to study the archaeological context the settlement was discovered. The artifacts found on it date it to the 9th—13th and 16th—18th centuries. Powerful fortifications in the form of moats, ramparts and escarpments have been preserved. Probably, the formation of the silver hoard is connected with the ancient roads along the Sluch River and the Old Rus settlement on the site of the modern settlement of Gorodnytsia. In total 38 silver coins were in the hoard. 31 of them belonged to the minting of Volodymyr Sviatoslavych, and 7 to Sviatopolk Yaropolkovych. Vladimir’s coins are presented in three types — II (6 copies), III (16 copies) and IV (9 copies). Sviatopolk’s coins represent all three of his existing numismatic types — I (4 copies), II (2 copies) and III (1 copy). 10 silver coins of Volodymyr and 1 of Svyatopolk are represented by previously unknown stamp pairs. 2 coins of Vladimir, which have an unknown combination of stamps, are of particular scientific interest.

Anggaran infrastruktur di Indonesia pada tahun 2015 mengalami peningkatan pesat hingga 62,7% dibandingkan tahun sebelumnya. Selama lima tahun, angka ini terus tumbuh hingga tahun 2019 meningkat sebesar 62%. Melonjaknya peningkatan anggaran infrastruktur era pemerintahan Presiden Jokowi dilakukan demi mempercepat pertumbuhan ekonomi di Indonesia. Namun, hingga akhir periode pertama pemerintahannya, sepertiga wilayah di Indonesia masih memiliki pertumbuhan ekonomi di bawah 5%. Selain itu, hampir 60% pertumbuhan ekonomi di Indonesia disumbang dari Pulau Jawa. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis pengaruh infrastruktur ekonomi dan sosial, yaitu infrastruktur jalan, listrik, air, kesehatan, dan TIK terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi di Indonesia pada periode 2015-2019. Analisis yang dilakukan menggunakan regresi data panel dengan metode estimasi Fixed Effect Model SUR. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa kelima variabel infrastruktur berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap pertumbuhan ekonomi di Indonesia pada tahun 2015-2019.

This paper aims to describe the worth noting that the Samanids had prominent civil and political roles. During their reign, writing appeared in the Persian language and the Arabic language. The Samanid era witnessed an industrial renaissance manifested in ceramics, paper, carpets, and textiles. From a political point of view, the Samanids defended the eastern border region and extended Islamic influence to the countries of the Turks. They never departed from the subordination of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. We conducted a literature study to discuss the development of the Samanid dynasty, starting from its power, administration, and distinction in science and the race that developed in this Sunni dynasty. He also endeavoured to bring scholars to the presence of his kingdom and honoured them, benefited and rewarded them. During the years of his rule, which exceeded thirty years, this prince was just, benevolent, and wise. The cities of his state flourished, namely: Nishapur, Merv, Balkh, Bukhara, Samarkand, and others. But after the death of Prince Ismail al-Samani, a conflict erupted between members of the Samanid house in greed for power. The influence of politicians increased, and the weakness of the state began to appear and gradually increase

This article aims to reveal the economic, political and social conditions of the Bunga Bali Kingdom during the reign of King Baolong Kaay in 1840-1875, as well as to revealing his role in political diplomacy in the Lisbon Treaty which certainly had shown existence of the Bali Bunga Kingdom. This study focuses on the locus of the territorial area of the Bunga Bali Kingdom which is centered at Alor Besar. This study uses a historical approach by emphasizing historical facts. Data were obtained from literature or document studies, observations, field studies, and oral traditions. According to this study, there is an economic dependence of the community on the agricultural, livestock and fishery sectors, as well as the political situation. The Bunga Bali Kingdom has 10 Adang villages, three Islamic villages, and seven Pura villages. This study also reveals the social relations of local communities that did not recognize the division of social classes. On the other hand, the emergence of King Baololong as a mediator in the Lisbon treaty in Sago (Solor) was an important turning point because it resulted in an agreement on the territorial division and recognition for the Portuguese and the Dutch. The territories of Kolana, Batulolong, Kui, and Mademang were given to the Dutch, while the island of Atauro was given to the Portuguese. Meanwhile, based in the participation in the Lisbon, it was a medium of achievement and pride for the community as well as to strengthen the ties of brotherhood and cooperation between Galiyau Watang Lema and Solor Watang Lema.

The papal government was characterized by centralisation in the 14th century in which the tax system and the papal beneficial policy were two main factors. The Avignon popes strived to extend their influence on every stratum of the ecclesiastical hierarchy by rewarding the members of the Curia’s developing administrative system with benefices in the local churches. The changes in the functioning of the papal curia offered a great opportunity for a growing number of qualified clerics to build successful careers in the papal service. The process briefly described above had an impact on the contemporary ecclesiastical structure of the Hungarian Kingdom, as more and more clerics tried to obtain benefices with papal protection, especially in the second half of the 14th century. Soon not only papal officers, but cardinals and the members of their entourage held Hungarian ecclesiastical titles as well. The main aim of the present paper is to analyse the lifepath of a curialist, Petrus Begonis. First procurator of cardinal Guillaume de la Jugie, later papal chaplain, Petrus Begonis was granted various church offices – also in the Hungarian Kingdom – and charged with diverse diplomatic tasks in different parts of Europe (Hungary, Holy Roman Empire, Italy). His ecclesiastical career – spanning from the reign of Clement VI to that of Urban VI – gives an insight in the functioning of the papal curia in Avignon and helps us comprehend the administrational changes in the 14th century.

The Portuguese-Brazilian playwright Antonio Jose da Silva, better known by his nickname, the Jew (o Judeu), took to the stage in Lisbon eight comic plays, classified as jocose-serious operas. In them, he dialogues in a parodic way, sometimes with Greek mythology, as, for example, in Amphitrion or Jupiter and Alcmene, The Charms of Medea and Labyrinth of Crete; sometimes with canonical narratives from Western Literature, as one reads in El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha. Victim of the Portuguese Inquisition in the 18th century, the Jew, through symbologies and metaphors, recorded in his texts the excesses of monarchic and ecclesiastical power, during the reign of the Tribunal of the Holy Office.

The death of Kazimir IV Yahailavich in 1492 led to the break of the personal union between the Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. These two states had got separate monarchs, who became the sons of Kazimir – Jan Olbracht and Alexander. The period of 1492–1501, the Alexander’s reign in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, was a serious test for the independence of this state. The transition from a personal to the more formal dynastical union had been thrown the Grand Duchy before a hard dilemma. On the one hand it wanted to keep the alliance with Poland that already had a long historical tradition, was supported by a large body of agreements and provided its benefits. On the other hand the Grand Duchy sought to defend its sovereign rights that the Poland had not recognized always. There are a number of facts that could proof the perception by Poland and Jan Olbracht of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Alexander as subordinated powers. For instance, Jan Olbracht named himself as a Supreme Duke of Lithuania. He used to conclude international agreements in the name of Aleksandr. The King of Poland tried to appoint the Catholic bishops in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In his tern Alexander sometimes emphatically referred to him as his elder brother in official documents. He also used to mint coins with the coat of arms of not only the Grand Duchy of Lithuania but also the Kingdom of Poland. Specific features at that time was that they were strongly conditioned by the family ties of two monarchs. All of Kazimir’s sons, including Jan Olbracht and Alexander sought to maintain family and dynastic unity, to support each other. It came in full force in the international relations. For example two or even three of the Yahajlavichy brothers could enter into an agreement with foreign states. In general, we can say that some signs of dependence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on Kingdom of Poland, which still be traced, belonged mainly to the external, symbolic attributes of statehood. They hardly hurt the fundamental principles of sovereignty of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The more acute problem was the union between the two states. The conditions to elect Alexander as a King of Poland was a new bilateral agreement. The Piotrkau-Mielnik Union of 1501 became such an agreement. In actual fact, it covered a fusion of two states into the one country, one king, one soim (parliament) and so on. But this plan had never become truth. The ratification of the union was postponed for a long time in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and in 1505 it was denied any approves at all. As a result, the states turned back to the personal union, to that type of relations exciting before 1492. For the Grand Duchy of Lithuania it meant to keep on the sovereign state status.

The article describes the development of geodetic surveying and production of geodetic instruments in what is now Czech Republic. The beginnings of development can be found in the 12th–13th centuries during the colonization of the territory and the consolidation of state administration. Significant development peaks occurred in the 14th century during the reign of the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV and then at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries during the reign of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. The new direction is related to the development of industry at the end of the 19th century. At that time, several dozen companies in fine mechanics and optics were operating in Prague. The company J. & J. Frič was a world leader in the use of a glass divided circle in 1864. The production of astronomical and geodetic instruments in Czechoslovakia was successful until the end of the 1960s.

Talking about classical Islamic education basically cannot be separated from the historical background of the birth and development of Islamic education itself. This is because Islamic education which is now developing is the result of the metamorphosis of previous education. When Islamic education during the time of the Prophet and Khulafa al-Rasyidin emphasized more on the cultivation of faith, sharia, and morals as the basis for fostering the people, classical Islamic education reached its peak during the reign of the Abbasid's which was marked by an openness to foreign cultures and thoughts. Therefore, during the Abbasid era, the scientific tradition developed rapidly and gave birth to many Muslim intellectuals, both concerned with philosophy, religious knowledge (tafsir, fiqh, language), and the realm of education. This period by historians called the golden period (The Golden Age), in which, philosophy, religion, and other sciences, especially education developed rapidly with its unique models and characteristics that distinguish it from previous models and characteristics of education.

The Kingdom of Morocco has been democratizing steadily since the reign of King Al-Hassan II which started in 1961, and its democracy appears to be advancing, flourishing, and stable. Morocco didn't encounter any extremist or progressive change in 2011 and it doesn't appear to be pursuing the direction of the Arabic Spring. Nor did it appear to be following the regular strides of the progress worldview (advancement, forward leap, and union) laid out by political researchers who handled democratization. Morocco isn't inflexible and has, in this way, to remain with the current the state of affairs; regardless of whether its majority rules system is very recognizable. One of the notable qualities of Moroccan majority rule government is that it contrasts from other vote based system in the Arab, African or underdeveloped nations. Accordingly, it very well may be viewed as a third method of democratization, frequently alluded to as the Moroccan superiority, which is formed by numerous elements that incorporate the part of the Monarch.

The Gospel and African Culture interface has remained an ongoing dialogue due to the fact of inherent tensions. The genuineness of the conversion of the traditional leadership institution that welcomed the Western missionaries has remained in doubt in some missionary established churches. The conversion challenges of the traditional leaders have resulted from ancestors and ancestorial related functions that traditional leaders performed. The churches over the years created mission fields and chaplaincies with trained personnel and resources to address conversion challenges of specific and unique communities. While the creation of mission fields and appointments of chaplains have made significant responses to the conversion challenges of the people involved, the conversion challenges that traditional leaders have constantly requested for support from the churches have not been fully addressed. The study is an examination of the requests of some traditional leaders for Christian missions to be extended to the Palace and responses made so far by some of the missionary established churches. The study adopts a qualitative approach with an examination of relevant available materials and interviews. The study points to the fact that the conversion of the Palace and its functionaries must be considered as a major ministry and mission field of the church with trained ministers and resources for the specialized mission field. The study moreover calls for deeper research into matters of ancestors and ancestorial related rites that have remained as areas of tension between the church and the conversion of the Palace functionaries. Keywords: Palace, Christian Mission, Traditional Leadership, Chaplaincy, Conversion

The twentieth century marks the beginning of a new period in England during which the norms and the traditions pertaining to the Victorian age start to be questioned. While the echoes of this change have been audible from the 1890s onwards, they reach their climax with the death of Queen Victoria in 1901 because it announces not only the physical death of the Queen but also the symbolic death of the Victorian mindset. With the reign of King Edward VII, therefore, the literary texts of the period illustrate a liberal outlook that questions the outdated ideals of the previous era. Within this context, this article examines E. M. Forster’s Howards End (1910) by foregrounding and analysing the clash between the ideals of the past and those of the present, which in the wider perspective demonstrates Forster’s modernist agenda to go beyond the strict dualities and to introduce a totally fresh synthesis. Epitomising the cultural inheritance of the country, Howards End is more than a house; it represents the future of England. Thus, it is important that Howards End should function as a unifying force that will bring these opposite ends together – as represented through different socio-economic classes embodied through three families whose lives get connected to one another at the end of the novel. Thereby, Forster aptly weaves the stories of the Schlegels, the Wilcoxes, and the Bast family by counterbalancing the intellectual and the material; the spiritual and the physical; the feminine and the masculine; the past and the present, and he presents a modern synthesis that, he believes, will shape England in the future.

PurposeBased on the socioemotional wealth theory, this study aims to empirically investigate how founder reign, that is a founder serving as a cheif executive officer (CEO) or chairman, influences family firms' research and development (R&D) investment in emerging economies (e.g. China).Design/methodology/approachThis study empirically tested the hypotheses based on a sample of listed Chinese family companies from 2008 to 2018.FindingsFounder reign has a negative impact on family firms' R&D investment. Particularly, the negative impact of the founder serving as chairman on family firms' R&D investment is larger than the negative impact of the founder serving as CEO on family firms' R&D investment. Founder's military experience weakens the negative impact of founder reign on family firms' R&D investment, but founder's executive master of business administration (E)MBA experience has no moderating effect on this relationship.Originality/valueFirst, the authors contribute to the family firm innovation literature by providing an alternative but complementary explanation of why family firms have relatively low R&D investment levels. This research shows that founder reign is a key reason for family firms in China eschewing R&D investment. Second, by incorporating the founder serving as CEO and the founder serving as chairman into the analytical framework, and then examining their impact on family firms' R&D investment, our research helps us to fully understand the impact of founder reign on firm strategic actions. Third, we contribute to the “founder reign-firm strategic actions” framework by revealing how founders' human capital profoundly affects the relationship between founder reign and family firms' R&D investment.

Italy may well contribute to a better understanding of the lasting Roman impact on conquered societies in Italy as a whole. The first phase of Romanisation, especially coinciding with the later centuries of the Republic (third to first centuries BC), and culminating in the reign of Augustus, is essential to deciphering forms of transmission, assimilation and cultural integration. This phase is marked by an impressive influx of colonists from Latium and other Italian regions into the central Adriatic area, and by the introduction of urban ways of life modelled on Rome and central Tyrrhenian Italy. But it is also in these three first centuries of Roman dominance in the region that a diversity of interesting agglomerations and urban forms is being created, by a heterogeneous group of indigenous populations and immigrated individuals who deeply integrated their new habitation centres in the gradually changing surrounding territories and landscapes, stretching between the central Apennine mountains and the Adriatic Sea. To illustrate this, we will focus on landscape change in the crucial contact area between the coast and one of the most important valley corridors linking Rome and Latium with its Adriatic borderland during this last part of the Republic. Based on a recent analysis of urban developments in the whole central Adriatic region, as well as on intensive archaeological field surveys in the Potenza valley, we can start to reconstruct the main features of the Roman colony of Potentia in northern Picenum and its steering role in marked landscape change and settlement dynamics that occurred in this part of central Adriatic Italy. The sudden creation and relative fast development of such Roman colonial towns on the coast has, together with the impressive influx of viritim and veteran colonists, created a real and dynamic colonial landscape with a highly organized urban centre, a well-structured suburbium, (temporary) villages or hamlets, and isolated farms, which all play their role in a complex changing world., L’étude de la formation et du développement des paysages coloniaux dans l’Italie centrale adriatique contribue à une meilleure compréhension de l’impact à long terme de Rome sur les sociétés conquises dans l’ensemble de l’ Italie. La première phase de la romanisation, coïncidant avec les derniers siècles de la République (du IIIe au Ier siècle avant J.-C.), et qui culmine lors du règne d’Auguste, est essentielle pour le déchiffrement des formes de transmission, d’assimilation et d’intégration culturelle. Cette phase est marquée par un afflux massif de colons du Latium et d’ autres régions italiennes dans la région de l’Adriatique centrale et par l’introduction de modes de vie urbains inspirés de Rome et de l’Italie tyrrhénienne centrale. Mais c’est aussi dans ces trois premiers siècles de domination romaine dans la région que se développe une diversité d’agglomérations et de formes urbaines intéressantes, créées par un groupe hétérogène mêlant populations autochtones et immigrés individuels, qui ont su profondément intégrer leurs nouveaux centres d’habitation dans des territoires variés, entre les montagnes apennines et la mer. Pour illustrer cela, nous nous concentrerons sur l’évolution du paysage dans la zone de contact cruciale entre la côte et l’une des plus importantes vallées de circulation reliant Rome et le Latium à la frontière adriatique pendant cette dernière phase de la République. Sur la base d’une analyse récente des développements urbains dans l’ensemble de la région adriatique centrale, ainsi que sur des études archéologiques intensives dans la vallée de la rivière Potenza, nous pouvons commencer à reconstituer les principales caractéristiques de la colonie romaine de Potentia et son influence sur la dynamique spatiale de l’occupation humaine dans le Picenum septentrional. La création soudaine et le développement relativement rapide de ces villes coloniales romaines sur la côte, ainsi que l’afflux impressionnant de colons et vétérans, ont créé un véritable paysage colonial dynamique, avec un centre urbain hautement organisé, un suburbium bien structuré, des villages ou hameaux temporaires, et des fermes isolées, chacun remplissant son rôle dans un monde complexe en pleine évolution., Vermeulen Frank. The Impact of Later Republican Colonisation on Coastal Settlement Dynamics in Central Adriatic Italy: the Case of Potentia. In: Dialogues d'histoire ancienne. Supplément n°23, 2021. Colonies, territoires et statuts : nouvelles approches. pp. 149-178.

The article examines the practice of entering into dynastic marriages as part of the policy that was held in relation to vassal kings during the reign of the emperor Augustus (30 BC - AD 14). The author introduces the term Augustus project, bearing in mind the package of measures, aimed at creating a system of vassal kingdoms on the outskirts of the Roman Empire. According to the author, dynastic marriages as an effective instrument of real policy should have cemented the building blocks of the system. In the main part of the article the author analyses ten well-known dynastic marriages, related to the reign of Augustus. As a result of the research undertaken, the author concludes that Augustus, of course, sought to control the behavior of the kings-collaborators. Sometimes things got out of hand, and then the emperor should have intervened to resolve the resulting conflict of interests. The author asks: what did Augustus demand of vassal rulers? The answer is: loyalty and efficiency in the administration of the territories entrusted to them, which meant not only the timely dispatch to Rome of established monetary sums (tributes, taxes and other payments), but also to protect the local population from external enemies, as well as political stability and the rule of law. If it was all there and there was no danger, real or potential, for the peace and stability of the empire, Augustus overlooked extravagant matrimonial combinations, polygamy, conflicts with children and other excesses in the family life of dependent kings. But when it came to questioning loyalty and efficiency, Augustus was unmerciful and merciless in punishing the guilty. Immediate successors to Augustus rejected the Augustus project and gradually eliminated most vassal kingdoms, turning them into provinces under the control of the governors.

This article focuses on the history of a series of paintings by Alexey Bogolyubov which was devoted to Peter the Great’s naval campaigns and created between 1860 and 1877 at the commission of Alexander II. Bogolyubov’s series of naval battle scenes has not been studied individually before.Dispersed across various public and private collections, the paintings have lost their role as a pictorial ensemble. Besides, the fate of three of the eight paintings remains unknown, and they can only be judged by indirect sources: archival and literary sources, copies, studies, and preparatory graphic works. Collected and systematised in this article, these materials make it possible to present the development of the series and Bogolyubov’s pictorial language over a decade and a half at the peak of his artistic career. An analysis of the pictorial features of this cycle of paintings and some other works reveals a change in the artistic techniques during the creation of the series. Also, the author identifies works of Bogolyubov’s predecessors on similar subjects and reveals features of their stylistic similarities and differences from those of Bogolyubov’s.The author traces the connection between Bogolyubov’s choice of subjects in the paintings and the state of naval history, more particularly, their connection with the works of Feodosy Veselago. In addition, the author reveals a case of change in the original idea of the composition of The Battle of Gangut and its division into three paintings consistently reflecting the course of the battle. Additionally, the article compares the routes of hydrographic expeditions and travels as part of the entourages of Tsesarevich Nicholas Alexandrovich and Tsesarevich Alexander Alexandrovich and places related to events of Peter the Great’s reign. Thus, the research demonstrates Bogolyubov’s search for a maximum accumulation of historical material and documentary depiction of events., Статья посвящена истории создания серии картин на темы из русской военно-морской истории времен Петра I, написанных А. П. Боголюбовым в 1860–1877 гг. по заказу императора Александра II. Серия батальных марин Боголюбова впервые стала темой отдельного исследования.Рассредоточенные по различным коллекциям, государственным и частным, эти картины потеряли свое ансамблевое значение. Кроме того, судьба трех из восьми картин остается неизвестной, и судить о них можно лишь по косвенным данным: архивным и литературным источникам, копиям и подготовительным живописным и графическим работам. Собранные воедино и систематизированные, в данной статье эти материалы дали возможность представить последовательное развитие серии и живописного языка Боголюбова на протяжении полутора десятилетий, в период наибольшего подъема деятельности художника. Анализ живописных особенностей этого цикла работ и некоторых других произведений выявил изменение художественных приемов в ходе выполнения заказа. Обозначены работы предшественников на близкие сюжеты, выявлены черты их стилистического сходства и различия с картинами Боголюбова.Прослежена связь выбора сюжетов картин с состоянием военно-морской истории, в частности с трудами Ф. Ф. Веселаго. Кроме того, выявлен случай изменения первоначального замысла художника — разделение композиции «Гангутское сражение» на три последовательно отображающих события картины. Были сопоставлены также маршруты гидрографических экспедиций и путешествий в составе свиты цесаревичей Николая Александровича и Александра Александровича и места событий Петровского царствования. Таким образом подчеркивается стремление Боголюбова к максимальному овладению историческим материалом и документальному изображению событий.

When the great nineteenth-century antiquarian James Savage disputed the assumption that John Winthrop wrote A Short Story (London 1644), he was on to something, although the evidence he adduced was incorrect. Taking as a starting point two facts about the book-it is a compilation of documents and bears numerous marks of being an intentional text-this essay describes how the Short Story came into being and suggests who may be the "I" who mysteriously (and unidentified) speaks in the text.

Mustafa Kemal Paşa, Milli Mücadele’nin en güç zamanlarında bile Afganistan’ın askeri eğitimi için buraya askeri heyetler gönderdi. Böylece iki devlet arasında sağlam ilişkiler kuruldu. Sağlanan bu iyi ilişkiler çerçevesinde karşılıklı olarak büyükelçilikler de atandı. Nitekim Türkiye 1922’de Fahreddin Paşa’yı Afganistan’a Kâbil elçisi olarak gönderdi. Kabil’de Fahreddin Paşa ile çalışacak bir heyet de teşkil edildi. Heyette bir asker olarak Binbaşı Hüseyin Bey de yer almıştır. Binbaşı Hüseyin Bey, Fahreddin Paşa’nın emrinde sekiz ay görev yaptı. Bu zaman zarfında Binbaşı Hüseyin Bey, duyduklarına, şahit olduklarına ve bu ikisi üzerinden kendisinde hasıl olan kanaatlerine dayanarak hem elçilik hakkında hem de Afganistan’ın siyasi, sosyal ve askeri yapısı hakkında bir rapor kaleme almıştır. Raporda verilen bilgiler nitel yöntemle ele alınmış ve literatürde yer alan bilgiler çerçevesinde raporda geçen konulara açıklık getirilmeye çalışılmıştır. Bu makaleden amaç bahsi geçen rapor çerçevesinde Emir Amanullah Han dönemi Türkiye-Afganistan ilişkileri, Afganistan’ın siyasi, sosyal ve askeri yapısı hakkında bir değerlendirme yaparak döneme ilişkin eksik bilgileri tamamlamaya çalışmaktır., Mustafa Kemal Pasha sent military delegations to Afghanistan for the military training of the country even in the most difficult times of the National Struggle. Thus, solid relations were established between the two states. Within the framework of these good relations, ambassadors were also appointed. As a matter of fact, Turkey appointed Fahreddin Pasha as its Ambassador to Kabul, Afghanistan in 1922. A delegation was also formed to work with Fahreddin Pasha in Kabul. As a soldier, Major Hüseyin Bey also took part in the delegation. Major Hüseyin Bey served under Fahreddin Pasha for eight months. During this time, Major Hüseyin Bey wrote a report about the embassy and the political, social and military structure of Afghanistan based on what he had heard, what he had witnessed and the opinions he had formed based on these two. The information given in the report was handled with a qualitative method and it was tried to clarify the issues in the document within the framework of the information in the literature. The aim of this article is to try to complete the missing information about the period by making an evaluation of Turkey-Afghanistan relations and the political, social and military structure of Afghanistan during the Amanullah period within the framework of the aforementioned report.