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The mid-Middle Paleolithic (late Marine Isotope Stage 6 and Marine Isotope Stage 5) is the least documented phase of the Levantine Middle Paleolithic (MP), especially concerning flint provisioning strategies. Our study of raw material exploitation at Nesher Ramla karst sinkhole (central Coastal Plain, Israel) provides an intriguing glimpse into the decision making of mid-Middle Paleolithic hominins. In this study we focused on the identification of the provisioning strategies derived from two horizons (which we dubbed the “Pelvis Horizon” and the “Stones Horizon”) from the upper part of the Nesher Ramla sequence. We applied several analytical measures: a survey of raw material sources, material composition and typo-technological analyses of the archaeological assemblages, mainly using the chaine operatoire approach and a taphonomic-taxonomic analysis of the faunal assemblages. Our study demonstrates that different lithic provisioning strategies were practiced in each horizon. The findings for the Pelvis Horizon are particularly interesting. They offer strong evidence for hunter-gatherers’ personal toolkits associated with the provisioning of individuals strategy. The Stones Horizon, conversely, produced a mixed signal, containing evidence for both intensive in situ knapping and mobile toolkits. The faunal remains echo these differences: Compared to the Stones Horizon, the zooarchaeological assemblage of the Pelvis Horizon presents lower frequencies of bone fracturing, anthropogenic modifications, and burning. Accordingly, during the Pelvis Horizon, the site most likely functioned as an ephemeral hunting station whereas, during the Stones Horizon, it hosted a broader range of activities and longer occupations. These observations shed light on the variability of south Levantine MP mobility patterns, modes of occupation, and site function.

The Levantine Middle Paleolithic period displays significant archaeological variability across a series of cave and open-air sites encompassing ca. 200,000 years. Faunal remains are an important source of knowledge regarding hunting and mobility patterns but have mostly been studied in the deep stratigraphic sequences of the Levantine caves. This research addresses questions of hunting, carcass transport, butchery patterns and use of space as they occurred at the Middle Paleolithic open-air site of Nesher Ramla in central Israel. The site is an eight-meter-thick sequence within a karst sinkhole, dating to MIS6/5. We conducted the first detailed taphonomic and zooarchaeological study at the site, focusing on a sample from Unit III, which is a thin layer with dense lithics and faunal remains, combustion features, manuports, and ochre. Our results reveal an anthropogenic accumulation that is dominated by aurochs, equid, and tortoise remains. The large ungulates’ (aurochs) skeletal-element representation is biased in favor of meat- and fat-rich body parts, coupled with abundant evidence of dismemberment, filleting and marrow extraction. These parts were imported to the sinkhole for processing and consumption. Tortoises are abundant. The lithic assemblages exhibit high frequency of retouched tools and low typological diversity and are characterized by high visibility of personal toolkit components. Coupled with use-wear analysis that suggests low spectrum of activities and massive occurrence of hammerstones, anvils and manuports, these characteristics indicate that the Unit III occupation represents an intensive camp centering on aurochs processing and butchering.

This paper focuses on new findings from Middle Paleolithic Geula Cave, Israel, located in the northern part of Mt. Carmel. The cave, consists of several small chambers that are remnants of a larger cave system, initially excavated between 1958 and 1964. The occupation at the cave was ascribed to Middle Paleolithic modern humans. In 2016, a salvage excavation was conducted in areas of the cave that were not previously explored. Analyses of the new excavation revealed a consistency in lithic technology throughout the new excavation areas, with an emphasis on Levallois production using mainly bidirectional and centripetal core preparation modes. The faunal study identified intensive hyena and porcupine activities in small chambers, probably at the back part of the cave, while fractured bones in association with flint artifacts were found at what appears as the living area in the cave. Luminescence ages indicated that Geula Cave was occupied as early as 175 ka, but that the major occupation was from 120 to 100 ka. The major occupation at Geula chronologically overlaps with the Skhul and Qafzeh Caves thus reinforcing the notion that Homo sapiens dominated the southern Levant during early MIS 5. This study demonstrates the importance of reinvestigating and reevaluating past excavated prehistoric sites and their contents to enhance our understanding of the regional, cultural and biological history.

Deep learning is a powerful tool for exploring large datasets and discovering new patterns. This work presents an account of a metric learning-based deep convolutional neural network (CNN) applied to an archaeological dataset. The proposed account speaks of three stages: training, testing/validating, and community detection. Several thousand artefact images, ranging from the Lower Palaeolithic period (1.4 million years ago) to the Late Islamic period (fourteenth century AD), were used to train the model (i.e., the CNN), to discern artefacts by site and period. After training, it attained a comparable accuracy to archaeologists in various periods. In order to test the model, it was called to identify new query images according to similarities with known (training) images. Validation blinding experiments showed that while archaeologists performed as well as the model within their field of expertise, they fell behind concerning other periods. Lastly, a community detection algorithm based on the confusion matrix data was used to discern affiliations across sites. A case-study on Levantine Natufian artefacts demonstrated the algorithm’s capacity to discern meaningful connections. As such, the model has the potential to reveal yet unknown patterns in archaeological data.

Squamate (lizard and snake) remains are abundant in the terminal Pleistocene Natufian archaeological sites of the Levant, raising the question of whether they constitute part of the broad-spectrum diet characteristic of this period. However, the role of squamates in Natufian diets remains unclear, as they are taphonomically under-studied. We conducted a series of experiments and actualistic observations that tested the impact of pre- and post-depositional processes on squamate vertebrae. We emphasized the multiple destruction processes that leave overlapping or altered marks on the bones, such as digestion marks that were modified by trampling. The resulting bone modification typology provides a tool for studying archaeological squamate remains. The experimental data were compared to the archaeological bone samples of the Natufian sequence of el-Wad Terrace (Mount Carmel, Israel, 15,000–12,000 cal BP). The Natufian squamate samples deviate from all actualistic ones in their lesser evidence of digestion and much greater indications for trampling, erosion and breakage. The taphonomic study, coupled with intra-site analysis, has unraveled the complex depositional history of el-Wad Terrace, enabling us to differentiate between cultural and non-cultural contexts and to identify possible human consumption of the European glass lizard and the large whip snake in the Natufian.

Malpolon insignitus (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1827) The Eastern Montpellier Snake is common at the site (NISP = 77, 7%) and was identified solely by trunk vertebrae (Figure 6 (d)). The centrum length measurements range between 5.0 and 8.7 mm, assigning them to large-sized ‘colubrines’. The cotyle is rounded and slightly flattened dorsoventrally. The condyle is round and laterally flattened. The neural arch is vaulted, the neural canal is restricted, small and U-shaped. In dorsal view the vertebra is longer than wide with a well-marked interzygapophyseal constriction. The neural spine is strong, high and long. The zygosphene is wide, and its anterior border is slightly concave. The prezygapophyseal articular facets are large and elongated and pointed medioposteriorly (almond shaped). The prezygapophyses are long and pointed anterolateraly. In ventral view, the centrum is triangular, the paradiapophyses are well-developed and protrude anterolaterally from the centrum. The haemal keel is well-defined and sharp, it rises posteriorly and in most presacral vertebrae expands to a triangular shape posteriorly. In anterior view, the zygophene is wide and slightly convex dorsally. The prezygapophyses are long, the prezygapophyseal accessory processes project laterally. There are two small paracotylar foramina. In posterior view, the neural canal is oval. In lateral view, the diapophyses and parapophyses are well-developed and distinct from one another, the diapophyses are rounded and extend dorsoventrally, and the parapophyses are flattened and protrude anteroventrally. The neural spine rises dorsally at an acute angle and is rectangular in shape, its anterior and posterior edges are slightly concave. The shape of the condyle, cotyle and the haemal keel, and the restricted neural canal differentiate the Montpellier Snake from other largesized ‘colubrines’ in the southern Levant. The species can inhabit various habitats, mostly common in the Mediterranean maquis, Mediterranean park forest and in arid/ semi-arid habitats (supplementary Figure S2 (h)). It was identified at three Epipaleolithic sites in Israel: Jordan River Dureijat (Sharon et al. 2020), EWT (Lev et al. 2020) and Eynan (Biton et al. 2021)., Published as part of Ma'ayan Lev, Dani Nadel, Mina Weinstein-Evron & Reuven Yeshurun, 2022, Squamates and amphibians from the Natufian cemetery of Raqefet Cave, Israel: taphonomy, paleoenvironments and paleoclimate, pp. 2394-2414 in An International Journal of Paleobiology 34 (12) on pages 2405-2406, DOI: 10.1080/08912963.2021.2017918, http://zenodo.org/record/7542239, {"references":["Sharon G, Grosman L, Allue E, Barash A, Mayer DE B-O, Biton R, Bunin EJ, Langgut D, Melamed Y, Mischke S, et al. 2020. Jordan River Dureijat: 10,000 Years of Intermittent Epipaleolithic Activity on the Shore of Paleolake Hula. Paleoanthropology. 34: 64.","Lev M, Weinstein-Evron M, Yeshurun R. 2020. Squamate bone taphonomy: a new experimental framework and its application to the Natufian zooarchaeological record. Sci Rep. 10 (1): 9373. doi: 10.1038 / s 41598 - 020 - 66301 - 5.","Biton R, Bailon S, Birkenfeld M, Bridault A, Khalaily H, Valla FR, Rabinovich R. 2021. The anurans and squamates assemblage from Final Natufian Eynan (Ain Mallaha, Israel) with an emphasis on snake-human interactions. PLoS One. 16 (2): e 0247283. doi: 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0247283."]}

Dolichophis jugularis (Linnaeus, 1758) The Large Whip Snake was the most commonly identified species at the site (NISP = 168, 16% of the total assemblage) and was identified solely by trunk vertebrae (Figure 6 (c)). Their centrum length measurements range between 4.1 and 8.1 mm and thus we assign them to large-sized ‘colubrines’; specimens with centrum lengths smaller than 5 mm most probably representing young individuals. The cotyle is rounded and flattened ventrally. The condyle is slightly oval and is flattened dorsoventrally. The neural arch is vaulted. In dorsal view the vertebra is longer than wide with a well-marked interzygapophyseal constriction. The neural spine is relatively strong, high and long. The zygosphene is wide, its anterior border has a straight line and slightly protrude laterally. The prezygapophyseal articular facets are elongated and oval shaped that narrow posteromedially (almond shaped). The prezygapophyses are long and pointed laterally. In ventral view, the centrum is triangular and convex. The haemal keel is well-defined. It is thin and sharp and protrudes from the vertebral centrum, slightly expanding to a triangular shape posteriorly. The thin, sharp and well-defined haemal keel differentiates the Large Whip Snake from other large-sized ‘colubrines’. In anterior view, the prezygapophyseal accessory processes project laterally, and they are long and pointed. The zygophene is wide and slightly convex dorsally. In lateral view, the neural spine starts to rise dorsally close to the anterior edge. The diapophyses are round and the parapophyses protrude anteriorly. The hypapophysis is long and straight, and it protrudes past the condyle in a posteroventral direction. The species inhabits all Mediterranean habitats and is mostly common in the Mediterranean maquis and Mediterranean alluvial valleys. The species can also be found in the semi-arid/arid habitat around Be’er Sheva (and northward) and the open forest of Mount Hermon (supplementary Figure S2 (g)). This species was identified at two Natufian sites in Israel: EWT (Lev et al. 2020) and Eynan (Biton et al. 2021)., Published as part of Ma'ayan Lev, Dani Nadel, Mina Weinstein-Evron & Reuven Yeshurun, 2022, Squamates and amphibians from the Natufian cemetery of Raqefet Cave, Israel: taphonomy, paleoenvironments and paleoclimate, pp. 2394-2414 in An International Journal of Paleobiology 34 (12) on pages 2404-2405, DOI: 10.1080/08912963.2021.2017918, http://zenodo.org/record/7542239, {"references":["Lev M, Weinstein-Evron M, Yeshurun R. 2020. Squamate bone taphonomy: a new experimental framework and its application to the Natufian zooarchaeological record. Sci Rep. 10 (1): 9373. doi: 10.1038 / s 41598 - 020 - 66301 - 5.","Biton R, Bailon S, Birkenfeld M, Bridault A, Khalaily H, Valla FR, Rabinovich R. 2021. The anurans and squamates assemblage from Final Natufian Eynan (Ain Mallaha, Israel) with an emphasis on snake-human interactions. PLoS One. 16 (2): e 0247283. doi: 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0247283."]}

Stellagama cf. stellio (Linnaeus, 1758) The rock-tailed agama is the second most common lizard at the site (NISP = 44, 4% of the total assemblage) and is represented by maxillary and mandibular specimens, and vertebrae (Figure 5 (b)). The specimens were assigned to Stellagama following Smith et al. (2016). The maxilla is characterised by a steep angulation of the triangular shaped facial process. The dorsal end of the facial process has two posterior processes that are asymmetric, the medial facial process is longer than the lateral one. There is a strong notable depression on the slightly medially curved premaxillary process. The anteromedial process is pointed in the dorsal direction. There are two anterior subpleurodont, monocuspid caniniform teeth, the second is much longer and has greater girth than the first. Posteriorly the teeth are acrodont and triangular; they are crowded and increase in size posteriorly. The Lateral surface is smooth and bears five labial (ventrolateral) foramina. The dentary is characterised by a large rounded strong mandibular symphysis. The Meckelian groove is narrow anteriorly with no restrictions, it has a constant depth and height until its posterior expansion at the angular articulation. The subdental shelf has a consistent height until it posteriorly expands ventrodorsally. A subdental gutter is present and is apparent for two-thirds of the dentary from the anterior subpleurodont teeth to the posterior acrodont teeth until the last four posterior teeth. The dorsal inflection in the coronoid articulation is absent. There are two anterior subpleurodont large caniniform monocuspid teeth and posteriorly triangular, laterally flattened acrodont teeth. The size of the acrodont teeth increases posteriorly, however the posterior most teeth are slightly smaller. On the lateral surface, the largest acrodont teeth are located in the middle of the dentary and the teeth are separated by a ventrally oriented groove. The lateral surface of the dentary has five mental foramina that vary in size and depth. The trunk vertebra is procoelous and is characterised by an oval dorsoventrally flattened condyle and cotyle. In the dorsal view, the neural arch is wide and the interzygapophyseal constriction is moderate. Prezygapophyseal particular facets are elongated ovalshaped and anterolaterally directed. The neural spine is strong and wider in its posterior half. In the ventral view, the centrum is triangular, its ventral surface is slightly convex, and the synapophyses are laterally protruding. In anterior view, the neural canal is wide, the neural arch is triangular in shape, and its anterior edge is V-shaped. The synapophyses are well-defined and laterally protruding. The prezygapophyseal facets are dorsolaterally tilted. In posterior view, the neural canal is wide, the neural arch is round, and its posterior edge is U-shaped. Postzygapophysis is thin and laterally protruding. In lateral view, the synapophyses are well-defined and oval shaped. The neural spine starts to rise dorsally from the anterior edge of the neural arch. The species inhabits various habitats in the Mediterranean region, semi-arid and arid regions, always in rocky areas. It is most common in the Mediterranean maquis habitat (supplementary Figure S2 (b)). This species was identified at various Epipaleolithic sites in Israel, including the Kebaran sites of Iraq e Zigan (Heller 1978), Nahal Hadera V (Bar-Oz 2004) and Meged Rockshelter (Stiner 2005), and the Natufian layers of Abu Usba Cave (mixed layer with Holocene intrusions, Stekelis and Haas 1952), Hayonim Cave (Stiner 2005), Nahal Oren (Nadel et al. 1997), Nahal Ein Gev II (Munro et al. 2021), Abu Salem (Marks and Scott 1976), Ramat Harif (Munro et al. 2020), Eynan (Biton et al. 2021) and EWT (Valla et al. 1986; Lev et al. 2020)., Published as part of Ma'ayan Lev, Dani Nadel, Mina Weinstein-Evron & Reuven Yeshurun, 2022, Squamates and amphibians from the Natufian cemetery of Raqefet Cave, Israel: taphonomy, paleoenvironments and paleoclimate, pp. 2394-2414 in An International Journal of Paleobiology 34 (12) on page 2402, DOI: 10.1080/08912963.2021.2017918, http://zenodo.org/record/7542239, {"references":["Smith KT, Maul LC, Flemming F, Barkai R, Gopher A. 2016. The microvertebrates of Qesem Cave: a comparison of the two concentrations. Quat Int. 398 (398): 233 - 245. doi: 10.1016 / j. quaint. 2015.04.047.","Heller J. 1978. The faunal remains of Iraq e Zigan, a late Pleistocene site on Mt. Carmel. Isr J Ecol Evol. 27 (1): 11 - 19.","Bar-Oz G. 2004. Epipaleolithic subsistence strategies in the Levant: a zooarchaeological perspective. Boston: Brill Academic Pub.","Stiner MC, 2005. The faunas of Hayonim Cave, Israel: a 200,000 - year record of Paleolithic diet, demography, and society (No. 48). Cambridge, MA: Peabody Museum Press.","Stekelis M, Haas G. 1952. The Abu Usba Cave (Mount Carmel). Isr Explor J. 2 (1): 15 - 47.","Nadel D, Noy T, Kolska-Horwitz L, Zohar I. 1997. A note on new finds from the Natufian. J Isr Prehist Soc. 27: 63 - 74.","Munro ND, Petrillo AN, Grosman L. 2021. Specialized aquatic resource exploitation at the Late Natufian site of Nahal Ein Gev II, Israel. Archaeol Anthropol Sci. 13 (1): 1 - 15. doi: 10.1007 / s 12520 - 020 - 01257 - 1.","Marks AE, Scott TR. 1976. Abu Salem: type site of the Harifian industry of the southern Levant. J Field Archaeol. 3 (1): 43 - 60.","Munro ND, Lebenzon R, Gopher A, Goring-Morris AN. 2020. Hunting in the Negev: insights from the Late Epipaleolithic fauna of Ramat Harif. J Archaeol Sci: Reports. 33: 102571.","Biton R, Bailon S, Birkenfeld M, Bridault A, Khalaily H, Valla FR, Rabinovich R. 2021. The anurans and squamates assemblage from Final Natufian Eynan (Ain Mallaha, Israel) with an emphasis on snake-human interactions. PLoS One. 16 (2): e 0247283. doi: 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0247283.","Valla FR, Bar-Yosef O, Smith P, Tchernov E, Desse J. 1986. Un nouveau sondage sur la terrasse d'El Ouad, Israel. Paleorient. 12 (1): 21 - 38. doi: 10.3406 / paleo. 1986.4395.","Lev M, Weinstein-Evron M, Yeshurun R. 2020. Squamate bone taphonomy: a new experimental framework and its application to the Natufian zooarchaeological record. Sci Rep. 10 (1): 9373. doi: 10.1038 / s 41598 - 020 - 66301 - 5."]}

Bufonidae Gray, 1825 Bufotes viridis sensu lato green toads are rare in the assemblage and were identified by five presacral vertebrae (Figure 5a). The transverse processes are broken in all the vertebrae in the assemblage, but some diagnostic traits are still apparent. The vertebrae are procoelous. The cotyle is oval, elongated and is flattened dorsoventrally (semi-lunar shaped). The condyle is also oval and flattened dorsoventrally. In the dorsal view, the neural arch is flattened and wide anteroposteriorly. In the anterior view, the neural canal is wide (the width greater than the height) and oval. The prezygapophyses are dorsolaterally tilted. In posterior view the postzygapophyses are wide, dorsally flattened and laterally protruding. While there are no established osteological differences between the extant group of Bufotes viridis sensu lato (e.g. B. oblongus, B. viridis, B. boulengeri, B. balearicus and B. variabilis) (Blain et al. 2010), for the analysis bellow we identified the remains as Bufotes variabilis on biogeographic grounds (Stöck et al. 2006). The species inhabits predominantly a wide variety of Mediterranean habitats including the Mediterranean maquis (montane Mediterranean vegetation); however, it can also inhabit arid/ semi-arid habitats (supplementary Figure 2a). This species was identified at various Epipaleolithic sites in Israel: The Kebaran site of Urkan e-Rub IIa (Hovers et al. 1988), the Epipaleolithic layers of Sefunim Cave (Tchernov 1984), the Natufian layers of Abu Usba Cave (mixed layer with Holocene intrusions, Stekelis and Haas 1952), Eynan (Ain Mallaha) (Biton et al. 2021) and EWT (Lev et al. unpublished data)., Published as part of Ma'ayan Lev, Dani Nadel, Mina Weinstein-Evron & Reuven Yeshurun, 2022, Squamates and amphibians from the Natufian cemetery of Raqefet Cave, Israel: taphonomy, paleoenvironments and paleoclimate, pp. 2394-2414 in An International Journal of Paleobiology 34 (12) on pages 2400-2401, DOI: 10.1080/08912963.2021.2017918, http://zenodo.org/record/7542239, {"references":["Blain HA, Gibert L, Ferrandez-Canadell C. 2010. First report of a green toad (Bufo viridis sensu lato) in the Early Pleistocene of Spain: palaeobiogeographical and palaeoecological implications. C R Palevol. 9 (8): 487 - 497. doi: 10.1016 / j. crpv. 2010.10.002.","Stock M, Moritz C, Hickerson M, Frynta D, Dujsebayeva T, Eremchenko V, Macey JR, Papenfuss TJ, Wake DB. 2006. Evolution of mitochondrial relationships and biogeography of Palearctic green toads (Bufo viridis subgroup) with insights in their genomic plasticity. Mol Phylogenet Evol. 41 (3): 663 - 689. doi: 10.1016 / j. ympev. 2006.05.026.","Danin A, Orshan G. 1990. The distribution of Raunkiaer life forms in Israel in relation to the environment. J Veg Sci. 1 (1): 41 - 48. doi: 10.2307 / 3236051.","Hovers E, Horwitz LK, Bar-Yosef DE, Cope-Miyashiro C. 1988. The site of Urkan e-rub IIa: a case study of subsistence and mobility patterns in the Kebaran period in the lower Jordan Valley. J Isr Prehist Soc. 21: 20 - 48.","Tchernov E. 1984. The fauna of Sefunim cave, Mt. Carmel. In: Ronen A, editor. Sefunim Prehistoric Sites (Vol. 230). Mount Carmel (Israel): BAR International Series; p. 401 - 419.","Stekelis M, Haas G. 1952. The Abu Usba Cave (Mount Carmel). Isr Explor J. 2 (1): 15 - 47.","Biton R, Bailon S, Birkenfeld M, Bridault A, Khalaily H, Valla FR, Rabinovich R. 2021. The anurans and squamates assemblage from Final Natufian Eynan (Ain Mallaha, Israel) with an emphasis on snake-human interactions. PLoS One. 16 (2): e 0247283. doi: 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0247283."]}

Ma'ayan Lev, Dani Nadel, Mina Weinstein-Evron, Reuven Yeshurun (2022): Squamates and amphibians from the Natufian cemetery of Raqefet Cave, Israel: taphonomy, paleoenvironments and paleoclimate. An International Journal of Paleobiology 34 (12): 2394-2414, DOI: 10.1080/08912963.2021.2017918

Middle Pleistocene Homo in the Levant Our understanding of the origin, distribution, and evolution of early humans and their close relatives has been greatly refined by recent new information. Adding to this trend, Hershkovitz et al. have uncovered evidence of a previously unknown archaic Homo population, the “Nesher Ramla Homo ” (see the Perspective by Mirazon Lahr). The authors present comprehensive qualitative and quantitative analyses of fossilized remains from a site in Israel dated to 140,000 to 120,000 years ago indicating the presence of a previously unrecognized group of hominins representing the last surviving populations of Middle Pleistocene Homo in Europe, southwest Asia, and Africa. In a companion paper, Zaidner et al. present the radiometric ages, stone tool assemblages, faunal assemblages, and other behavioral and environmental data associated with these fossils. This evidence shows that these hominins had fully mastered technology that until only recently was linked to either Homo sapiens or Neanderthals. Nesher Ramla Homo was an efficient hunter of large and small game, used wood for fuel, cooked or roasted meat, and maintained fires. These findings provide archaeological support for cultural interactions between different human lineages during the Middle Paleolithic, suggesting that admixture between Middle Pleistocene Homo and H. sapiens had already occurred by this time. Science , abh3169 and abh3020, this issue p. 1424 and p. 1429 ; see also abj3077, p. 1395

We present the results of a detailed geochemical provenance study of 54 Natufian (ca. 15,000–11,700 cal BP) basalt pestles from the site of el-Wad Terrace (EWT), Israel. It is the first time precise locations whence basalt raw materials derive are provided. The results indicate that the Natufian hunter-gatherers used multiple sources of basaltic rocks, distributed over a large area surrounding the Sea of Galilee. For EWT, this area is located at a considerable distance of ca. 60–120 km away, in a region where contemporaneous Natufian basecamps are few. We consider two possible models that suggest vehicles for the transportation of these artifacts to EWT, namely the exchange obtaining model (EOM) and the direct procurement model (DPM). We argue that these mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and may have operated together. We also suggest that at a time of increasing Natufian territoriality, a large area around the Sea of Galilee remained unclaimed. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of the implications for the two models. In particular, we note that the DPM implies that technological know-how for pestle production was maintained within the EWT community.

We present the results of a detailed geochemical provenance study of 54 Natufian (ca. 15,000–11,700 cal. BP) basalt pestles from the site of el-Wad Terrace (EWT), Israel. It is the first time precise locations from where basalt raw materials were derived are provided. The results indicate that the Natufian hunter-gatherers used multiple sources of basaltic rocks, distributed over a large area surrounding the Sea of Galilee. This area is located at a considerable distance from EWT, ca. 60–120 km away, in a region where contemporaneous Natufian basecamps are few. We consider two possible models that suggest vehicles for the transportation of these artifacts to EWT, namely the exchange obtaining model (EOM) and the direct procurement model (DPM). We argue that these mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and may have operated together. We also suggest that at a time of increasing Natufian territoriality, a large area around the Sea of Galilee remained unclaimed. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of the implications for the two models. In particular, we note that the DPM implies that technological know-how for pestle production was maintained within the EWT community.

Our compilation of zooarchaeological data from a series of important archaeological sites spanning the Epipaleolithic through Pre-Pottery Neolithic B periods in the Mediterranean Hills of the southern Levant contributes to major debates about the beginnings of ungulate management in Southwest Asia. The data support an onset of ungulate management practices by the Early PPNB (10,500–10,000 cal. BP), more than 500 years earlier than previously thought for this region. There is a clear developmental connection between reduced hunting intensity and the uptake of ungulate management, confirming that this process began in response to local, density-dependent demographic factors. The early process of goat domestication in the southern Levant appears to have been overwhelmingly local. This may have been true for cattle and pigs as well. Nevertheless, the loose synchrony of animal management trends across Southwest Asia was undoubtedly enabled by large-scale social networks that transmitted knowledge. The results add to growing evidence that animal management processes followed multiple regional evolutionary pathways within the Fertile Crescent.

Archaeofaunal remains play an important role in the studies of Late Pleistocene human adaptations in Africa. Salvage excavations and surveys along the Nile Valley, in the Kom Ombo Plain (Upper Egypt) and opposite Wadi Halfa (northern Sudan), respectively conducted in the 1960s by Yale and the University of Colorado produced several Late Paleolithic (ca. 22.5–14.5 years BP) faunal assemblages which have never been published. Here I present a comprehensive taphonomic and zooarchaeological analysis of the faunal assemblages, with the aim of, first, understanding their integrity through identifying the depositional, post-depositional and collection biases and, second, characterizing the latest Pleistocene animal economy in the Nile Valley. The faunal assemblages come from both surveys and controlled excavations and in most cases the collections appeared to have been fully retained. The excavated remains were deposited in thin horizons representing small camps, associated with diverse lithic assemblages and sometimes hearth features. In one case the fauna originates from a large cemetery (the 6B36 site, opposite Wadi Halfa). Taphonomic criteria indicate that the faunas are anthropogenic and attest to consumption of predominantly medium and large ungulates as well as hippopotamus. The preservation of the material is variable and was chiefly affected by dispersal processes and the pace of burial. The assemblages' characteristics and their context suggest non-intensified animal exploitation and consequently low site-occupation intensity in the Nile Valley during the latest Pleistocene.

Engraved artifacts from pre-Natufian Levantine Epipaleolithic contexts are notable for their scarcity. This is so even though a number of implements have recently been added to the inventory. We present here an analysis of two engraved flint nodules recovered from the Geometric Kebaran site of Neve David (Mt. Carmel, Israel) incorporating use-wear studies and experiments on similar nodules from adjacent raw materials sources and provide online 3D models derived from photogrammetry. The engraved nodules were procured from two distinct flint outcrops in the site's immediate vicinity and were easy to engrave using the abundant flint flakes available at the site. We interpret one nodule as having two sets of decoration grooves, while in the other we see little evidence–if at all–for decoration or symbolic aspects. We then discuss the finds within the context of engraved objects from preceding Kebaran, contemporaneous Geometric Kebaran and subsequent Natufian sites. The current Epipalaeolithic repertoire in the southern Levant demonstrates that Kebaran and Geometric Kebaran engraved stone objects are rare and usually comprise small stones, plaquettes and nodules. In contrast, engraved stone artifacts were recovered in virtually every Natufian site and include large engraved slabs, small items and even the shaft wall of a bedrock mortar, with a wider variety of patterns and symbols.

The Epipaleolithic sequence of the southern Levant (ca. 24,000–11,500 cal. BP) reflects the shift from mobile to sedentary foraging societies, eventually paving the way to nascent villages, domestication and farming. Early and middle Epipaleolithic cultures (locally, the Kebaran and the Geometric Kebaran) generally produce an archaeological signature of mobile foragers, while the late Epipaleolithic Natufian Culture is renowned for the regular and intensified appearance of durable architecture, cemeteries, groundstones and art, joined with a broad-spectrum economy, and therefore indicates a more complex and sedentary society. Epipaleolithic archaeofaunas have been thoroughly investigated to detect shifts in site-occupation intensity, including changes in prey abundances, ungulate culling patterns and carcass processing habits, but carcass transport decisions received less attention. The transition to sedentary living in the Natufian would entail the exploitation of a defined and contracted territory around the site. In this case, central-place foraging theory predicts that ungulates will be hunted in the site's proximity and hence will be carried away in a more complete form, undergoing minimal or no field butchery. Therefore, we predict that skeletal-element profiles in sedentary Natufian hamlets will be more complete than in pre-Natufian camps, used by mobile foragers. We test this prediction by constructing detailed skeletal-element profiles and examining skeletal-element evenness. The results indicate that ungulate carcasses were transported significantly more completely in the Natufian assemblages, supporting our prediction. We further zoom in to explore the differential distribution of skeletal element abundances within a Natufian hamlet, showing the discard and attrition patterns that eventually produced our skeletal-element record. The results of our analysis of skeletal-element evenness correspond to other archaeological proxies for increased site-occupation intensity and territorial contraction in the Natufian.

The Early Upper Paleolithic period in the Levant is essential in the studies of the establishment of modern human communities outside Africa, and corresponding archaeological evidence may be used to shed light on human ecology, economy and demography. Specifically, cultural differences between two Early Upper Paleolithic entities, the Early Ahmarian and the Levantine Aurignacian, raise the question of differing adaptations. In this article we use archaeofaunal remains from the Early Upper Paleolithic sequence at Manot Cave (Western Galilee, Israel), to track human hunting patterns, carcass transport and processing within the Early Ahmarian (46-42 ka) and Levantine Aurignacian (38-34 ka) phases. We test two hypotheses: 1) the Ahmarian and Aurignacian represent adaptations to different environments; and 2) the two entities differ in mobility patterns and site use. Our multivariate taphonomic analysis showed subtle differences in depositional processes between the two phases and demonstrated a primarily anthropogenic complex. In both phases, human subsistence was based on two ungulate species, mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) and Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica), with some contribution from birds, tortoises and small mammals. Among the gazelles, it appears that female herds were targeted, and that hunting took place close to the cave. The results of the research show great similarity in environmental exploitation between the Ahmarian and Aurignacian phases concerning prey spectrum and choice, carcass transport and processing. These patterns occupy a middle position between the Middle Paleolithic and the late Epipaleolithic of the region. Despite this, there are also several significant differences between the phases such as increased exploitation of small game (especially birds) and faster accumulation and higher densities of material in the Aurignacian. This may indicate greater occupation intensity during the Aurignacian compared to the Ahmarian, and thus could explain the outstanding character of this entity in the Levant.

Hunting preferences reveal a great deal about the life of Paleolithic humans, and may reflect changes in human demography, technology, and adaptations to changing environments. However, the effects of hunting preferences and environmental availability are often conflated, stressing the need for comparisons to other predators that exploited the same environment. Manot Cave (Israel), preserved rich Early Upper Paleolithic (46-33 ka) human occupations, along with repeated spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) occupations, allowing us to compare anthropogenic and biogenic bone assemblages within the same space and time frame. We focused on the faunal remains retrieved in the middle of the cave (Area D), and conducted detailed taphonomic and zooarchaeological analyses. The Area D archaeofauna was dominated by Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) and mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella), which showed high abundance of carnivore damage. This and the carnivore-to-ungulate ratio, the presence of juvenile hyena and numerous coprolites match the criteria of a hyena den, confirming that the bone assemblage was created mainly by hyenas. Manot Area D thus reveals hyena prey choice in the Upper Paleolithic Galilee, which we then compared with human prey choice. Our results showed that hyena prey assemblages in Manot and elsewhere in the Levant were Dama-dominated while human assemblages were dominated by Gazella, demonstrating that hyenas and humans hunted different animal size groups, possibly in different habitats. We interpret this phenomenon as resulting from two possible scenarios: the emergence of projectile technology which may favor hunting in open environments, and niche partitioning derived by human-hyena competition. Hyenas were abundant and hunted unselectively while the anthropogenic record presents population turnovers and some dietary diversification. Whereas both scenarios are difficult to test directly with the available evidence, we argue that either one explains quite well the late Pleistocene archaeofaunal patterns in the Levantine record.

Raqefet Cave is located in southeast Mount Carmel, Israel. It contains a long archaeological sequence with two major occupations: in the early Upper Paleolithic (Levantine Aurignacian culture, ca. 36,000–35,000 cal. BP) and the Late Epipaleolithic (Natufian culture, ca. 14,000–12,000 cal. BP). Abundant charred remains were found in the cave's deposits consisting of various species. Drawing on Δ13C values of dated Amygdalus sp. (almond) charcoal specimens, we sought to reconstruct Late Pleistocene precipitation patterns from a high-resolution archaeological record. The results produced the longest, single-site, plant-based paleoclimatic sequence in the southern Levant, and they generally correspond to other paleoclimatic proxies generated for the region. They indicate that the plant taxa and reconstructed precipitation levels were all in the range of modern eastMediterranean climate but with some notable fluctuations. Specifically, we highlight the rainfall differences between the dryer Levantine Aurignacian and the wetter Natufian cultures.

The late Middle Palaeolithic (MP) settlement patterns in the Levant included the repeated use of caves and open landscape sites. The fossil record shows that two types of hominins occupied the region during this period—Neandertals and Homo sapiens. Until recently, diagnostic fossil remains were found only at cave sites. Because the two populations in this region left similar material cultural remains, it was impossible to attribute any open-air site to either species. In this study, we present newly discovered fossil remains from intact archaeological layers of the open-air site ‘Ein Qashish, in northern Israel. The hominin remains represent three individuals: EQH1, a nondiagnostic skull fragment; EQH2, an upper right third molar (RM3); and EQH3, lower limb bones of a young Neandertal male. EQH2 and EQH3 constitute the first diagnostic anatomical remains of Neandertals at an open-air site in the Levant. The optically stimulated luminescence ages suggest that Neandertals repeatedly visited ‘Ein Qashish between 70 and 60 ka. The discovery of Neandertals at open-air sites during the late MP reinforces the view that Neandertals were a resilient population in the Levant shortly before Upper Palaeolithic Homo sapiens populated the region.

Space use in Middle Paleolithic (MP) camps has been suggested as a source of information on the intensity and repetition of occupations and, by extension, of demographics. In the Levant, clear evidence for differential intrasite use and maintenance was important in viewing the late MP Neanderthal sites as base camps inhabited for a significant duration, relative to the Early MP (EMP). We test this model with the rich faunal assemblage from the EMP (>140 ka) site of Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel. Excavations in Misliya yielded a large and diverse lithic assemblage, combustion features, and a modern human maxilla, together with a large archaeofaunal assemblage that we use as a spatial marker. We analyzed the distribution of bone items with variable taphonomic properties (anthropogenic, biogenic, and abiotic bone-surface modifications) in a hearth-related context, both by comparing grid squares and point patterns. Both analyses are largely congruent. They indicate repeated and consistent use of the site's space that includes hearth-related consumption activities and peripheral activities further away, albeit with little evidence for site maintenance. Thus, the Misliya results display a mixed signal of clear around-the-fire pattern and differential space use in the EMP that is reminiscent of the much later MP sites in the Levant, but without the more elaborate camp maintenance. More case studies and detailed proxies are needed before we can fine-tune our understanding of camp structure in the Levantine MP and its bearing to site occupation dynamics.

Over the last two decades, much of the recent efforts dedicated to the Levantine Middle Paleolithic has concentrated on the role of open-air sites in the settlement system in the region. Here focus on the site of ‘Ein Qashish as a cases study. Located in present-day northern Israel, the area of this site is estimated to have been >1300 m2, of which ca. 670 were excavated. The site is located at the confluence of the Qishon stream with a small tributary running off the eastern flanks of the Mt. Carmel. At the area of this confluence, water channels and alluvial deposits created a dynamic depositional environment. Four Archaeological Units were identified in a 4.5-m thick stratigraphic sequence were dated by Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) to between—71 and 54 ka, and probably shorter time span–~70-~60 ka. Here we present the diverse material culture remains from the site (lithics, including refitted sequences; modified limestone pieces; molluscs; faunal remains) against their changing paleogeographic backdrop. Skeletal evidence suggests that these remains were associated with Neanderthals. The large-scale repeated accumulation of late Middle Paleolithic remains in the same place on the landscape provides a unique opportunity to address questions of occupation duration and intensity in open-air sites. We find that each occupation was of ephemeral nature, yet presents a range of activities, suggesting that the locale has been used as a generalized residential site rather than specialized task-specific ones. This role of ‘Ein Qashish did not change through time, suggesting that during the late Middle Paleolithic settlement system in this part of the southern Levant were stable.

The archaeological literature contains ample suggestions for lithics-based proxies of mobility, often used individually. In this study we use a combination of proxies to address changes in mobility in a persistent Late Middle Paleolithic open-air locality in the Levant (‘Ein Qashish). Low densities of finds (lithic and fauna) at 'Ein Qashish are consistent with short-term occupations, but thus far no attempt was made to compare the proxies of mobility in the different units. The proxies used here are formal to non-formal core ratio, overall artifact density, retouch frequency, Levallois debitage frequency and NISP density in volume. The compositions of the lithic assemblages are similar across archaeological units and appear to suggest the same modes of raw material acquisition and use, curation and extension of core use life (by the degree of its reduction) and the use-life of blanks (by the degree and nature of retouch). Likewise, the zooarchaeological comparison among the AUs highlights the general taxonomic and taphonomic similarity among them, suggesting that any differences between the four occupation horizons were of degree rather than of kind. The application of a multi-proxy approach serves to highlight the coarse-grain resolution of mobility that is addressed in these models, none of which can be a stand-alone method to capture, predict or explain the nuances within a narrow range of behavioral variations in a sequence of seemingly similar occupations.

The Natufian sequence at the site of el-Wad Terrace (EWT) shows a complex depositional record derived from intertwined soil-geomorphic and human processes. In order to identify site formation processes at EWT, we analyzed gravel composition, its distribution within the stratigraphic sequence, and micromorphology of both fine-grained material and gravel rims. The fine deposits within the EWT sequence are magnetically enhanced anthropogenic sediments mixed with a colluvial component. They contain miniscule burnt bones, charcoal, and calcareous aggregates reminiscent of reworked ash. The constructed stone floors in the earlier Early Natufian (ca. 15.0–13.7/13.0 ka) are largely covered by crusts on their undersides. In thin sections, the crusts exhibit a sequence of thin phosphate coatings directly overlying limestone calcite followed by clayey and secondary pedogenic calcite on the outer side. The expected post-depositional erosion of floors was likely hampered by their cementation resulting from pedogenic calcite redeposition. The major break in coarse deposition appears to have occurred in the later Early Natufian occupation phase marked by low rate of scree formation.

The Early Upper Palaeolithic in the Levant plays an important role in understanding the emergence, dispersal, and adaptations of the first Anatomically Modern Human (AMH) populations in the Levant and Europe. The technical exploitation of osseous raw materials, represented by the new concepts applied to the antler working, is recognized as one of several innovations that occur both in the Levant and in Europe during this time. Here we present preliminary results of a technological analysis conducted on the Aurignacian bone and antler industry from the Early Upper Palaeolithic layers of Manot Cave, Israel. The industry displays several similarities with its European counterpart such as the choice of bone for making “domestic” tools (recurrent morpho-types like awls) while antler was used predominantly for hunting equipment (projectile points). The complex technical exploitation of antler, almost exclusively devoted to making hunting weapons, constitutes a major feature both in the European Early Aurignacian and in the Levantine Aurignacian. Nevertheless, while simple-based antler points are common in the Levantine Aurignacian, split-based antler points, characteristic of the European Early Aurignacian are only anecdotally documented in the Levant. Unique to the Levantine industry is the common exploitation of fallow deer antler. While some of these particularities seem to be related to the different ecological niches exploited, others, such as the different type of hunting weapons, need to be assessed in light of different cultural contexts.

One of the hallmarks of the Natufian Culture of the Levant, a terminal Pleistocene sedentary foraging society (ca. 15,000–11,700 cal. BP), is a ubiquitous bone industry. During the past eighty years, Natufian worked-bone assemblages have been subjected to detailed stylistic, technological, and traceological analyses. Here we extract further information on the production, use, and disposal of bone artifacts in the Early–Late Natufian sequence of el-Wad Terrace (Mount Carmel, Israel), first by fully integrating them into a comprehensive zooarchaeological and taphonomic study, and then by examining their distribution and preservation patterns in relation to architectural features. On-site production, which generally followed butchery and consumption and which was an extension of these activities, occurred at el-Wad. It made use of discarded butchery refuse, such as gazelle feet and cracked gazelle limb bones. Bone beads were crafted just outside of the dwelling structure and generally used in domestic contexts, as were other bone artifacts. Fragmentation and burning patterns show that the worked items were discarded with other faunal refuse in the place of use and underwent a similar taphonomic history to the total faunal assemblage. Diachronically, a quantitative reduction in bone artifacts and the dwindling use of bone ornaments are noted in the Late Natufian. We see the integration of the study of bone artifacts with zooarchaeology and general and contextual taphonomy as being critical for fully understanding of Natufian technological behavior, site formation processes, use of space, and changes through time.

The shift from mobile hunting-gathering lifeways to sedentism has been frequently studied, and the Natufian culture is commonly recognized as the earliest sedentary society in the Levant. Historically, the remarkably rich Natufian material remains, combined with certain research biases, turned it into a “scene-stealer” in the Levantine Epipaleolithic sequence. However, data from earlier Epipaleolithic sites suggest a more complex scenario. Accordingly, we hypothesize an increase in occupation intensity even before the Natufian. The new excavations at Neve David (ND), a key site of the Middle Epipaleolithic Geometric Kebaran entity, located in Mount Carmel, enables us to test this by tracing variations in the lithic assemblage from a 185 cm deep section. Drawing upon the models of cultural transmission and technological organization, we employed six proxies: lithic volumetric density, burnt artifacts volumetric density, lithic fragmentation rate, microlith shape variation, relative frequency of bladelet cores, and tool/blank ratio. The first five proxies suggest that the settlement dynamics at ND are characterized by increasing occupation intensity through time. Overall, this case study sheds new light on the tempo and mode of evolution in land use strategies during the Middle Epipaleolithic, which is pivotal to better understanding the Neolithization processes in the Levant.

Contextual taphonomy is an archaeological approach that integrates taphonomic variables with stratigraphy and context, often at the intra-site level. A majority of zooarchaeological research explores vertebrate taphonomy broadly by entire temporal levels of sites, thus aggregating multiple contexts by time period. Yet, an increasing number of high-resolution studies go beyond this level to explore taphonomy per context or by other meaningful intra-site divisions. This approach marshals the rich information offered by the well-established discipline of taphonomy to build depositional histories of site features that contain bones, thereby revealing their formation and use. Here, we aim to better formalize the definition of contextual taphonomy for zooarchaeology and demonstrate its great applicability through select case studies in Israel. In this summary of the approach for the Special Issue on “Contextual Taphonomy in Zooarchaeological Practice”, we lay out the main requirements for multi-scalar contextual analysis and caution against potential pitfalls. Ultimately, archaeofaunal taphonomic studies at the context level are pertinent for myriad research questions, including those of refuse maintenance, camp organization and feasting.

A recommendation of: Delphine Vettese, Trajanka Stavrova, Antony Borel, Juan Marin, Marie-Helene Moncel, Marta Arzarello, Camille Daujeard A way to break bones? The weight of intuitiveness 10.31219/osf.io/rebwt

Situated at the crossroads of Africa and Eurasia, the Levant is a crucial region for understanding the origins and spread of Upper Paleolithic (UP) traditions associated with the spread of modern humans. Of the two local Early Upper Paleolithic technocomplexes, the Ahmarian and the Levantine Aurignacian, the latter appears to be unique in the endemic UP sequence, exhibiting greater similarity to the West European ‘classic’ Aurignacian than to the local preceding and proceeding UP entities. Previous publications have mostly focused on the similarities between the two lithic industries and less on studies conducted on Levantine Aurignacian bone tools and ornaments. Here, we present an archaeozoological, technological and use-wear study of ornaments on animal teeth from the Levantine Aurignacian layers at Manot and Hayonim caves (the Galilee, Israel). The selection of taxa, the choice of teeth, the mode of modification, and the use-wear analysis exhibit clear similarities with the European Aurignacian. This, with the technology of the osseous raw material exploitation, the presence of antler simple-base points, and some lithic typotechnological features, suggest a link between the symbolic spheres of the Levantine and the European Aurignacian cultural entities. Such similarity also supports some contribution of European Aurignacians groups to the local cultural entities, intermingling with the local material culture features.