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Summary - The phylogenetic relationships between 10 Spanish dog breeds were studied using the gene frequency values obtained from the electrophoretic analysis of 21 structural genic loci that code for blood-soluble proteins and enzymes. In addition, we studied the genetic differentiation within breeds. In some cases the genetic distances between subpopulations of the same breed were greater than the genetic distances between different breeds. The average between-breed distance has a value of 0.0197 (t 0.0128), with extreme values of D = 0.000 between Gos d’Atura and Podenco lb6rico, and of D = 0.051 for the Mastin Espanol - Ca de Bestian pair. The groupings of Spanish dog breeds obtained in our study from morphological and biochemical data were apparently quite similar. The correlation between enzymatic and morphological distances was, however, low (r = 0.07) and non-significant. The estimates of the divergence times among the 4 ancestral trunks suggest that the ancestral trunks separated independently in a relatively short interval of time, between 30 000 and 55 000 years ago.

Calcium content of natural cheese has a major impact on its physical properties. The objective of this study was to investigate how the calcium content of natural cheese affects the functionality of processed cheese (PC). The PCs were made from Cheddar cheese with an intact casein content of 89 g·100 g−1 total casein and with calcium/casein ratios (mg·100 g−1) that were low (LCaCC, 19.6), medium (MCaCC, 24.2) or high (HCaCC, 29.8). The PCs were formulated from Cheddar cheese, butter oil, emulsifying salts, preservative and water; the blend was heated to 80 °C while continuously shearing at 2000 rpm for a total time of 4 min. The calcium/casein ratio of the resultant PCs, denoted LCaPC, MCaPC and HCaPC, were 17.86, 22.10 and 28.36 mg·100 g−1, respectively. The PCs were analysed for composition, deformation properties on compression to 30% original sample dimensions, cooking properties (flow on heating at 280 °C for 4 min and 180 °C for 7.5 min) and changes in viscoelasticity on heating from 25 to 80 °C using low-amplitude strain oscillation rheometry. All PCs had similar levels of moisture (∼ 47 g·100 g−1), protein (∼21 g·100 g−1), water-soluble nitrogen, WSN (∼74 g·100 g−1 total N) and pH 4.6 soluble N (∼ 11 g·100 g−1 total N). The fracture stress, fracture strain and firmness of HCaPC were significantly higher than those of MCaPC or LCaPC. The heat-induced flow of HCaPC and MCaPC was significantly lower than that of LCaPC. Heating of PCs from 25 to 88 °C resulted in a continual decrease in storage modulus (G′) of HCaPC and MCaPC; however, G′ for LCaPC decreased to 51 °C but thereafter increased sharply. The phase angle (δ) of all PCs increased to a maximum (δmax) at 45–54 °C and thereafter decreased, the decrease being most pronounced for LCaPC. Reducing the calcium content of the Cheddar cheese significantly increased δmax and reduced the value of G′ at 25 °C, the time to reach δmax and the temperature at δmax of the resultant PC. The results indicate that lower calcium levels in natural cheese give PCs that are softer and shorter (more brittle), that become more fluid and spreadable on heating, that acquire this fluidity in a shorter time and at a lower temperature, but they tend to be less stable on heating at high temperature (∼ 80–100 °C) for longer times (> 7 min).

Soil degradation, caused by land misuse and soil mismanagement, has plagued humanity since the dawn of settled agriculture. Many once thriving civilizations collapsed due to erosion, salinization, nutrient depletion and other soil degradation processes. The Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, that saved hundreds of millions from starvation in Asia and elsewhere, by-passed Sub-Saharan Africa. This remains the only region in the world where the number of hungry and food-insecure populations will still be on the increase even by 2020. The serious technological and political challenges are being exacerbated by the rising energy costs. Resource-poor and small-size land-holders can neither afford the expensive input nor are they sure of their effectiveness because of degraded soils and the harsh, changing climate. Consequently, crop yields are adversely impacted by accelerated erosion, and depletion of soil organic matter (SOM) and nutrients because of the extractive farming practices. Low crop yields, despite growing improved varieties, are due to the severe soil degradation, especially the low SOM reserves and poor soil structure that aggravate drought stress. Components of recommended technology include: no-till; residue mulch and cover crops; integrated nutrient management; and biochar used in conjunction with improved crops (genetically modified, biotechnology) and cropping systems, and energy plantation for biofuel production. However, its low acceptance, e.g. for no-till farming, is due to a range of biophysical, social and economic factors. Competing uses of crop residues for other needs is among numerous factors limiting the adoption of no-till farming. Creating another income stream for resource-poor farmers, through payments for ecosystem services, e.g., C sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems, is an important strategy for promoting the adoption of recommended technologies. Adoption of improved soil management practices is essential to adapt to the changing climate, and meeting the needs of growing populations for food, fodder, fuel and fabrics. Soil restoration and sustainable management are essential to achieving food security, and global peace and stability.

The lack of micronutrients such as iron and zinc is a widespread nutrition and health problem in developing countries. Biofortification is the process of enriching the nutrient content of staple crops. Biofortification provides a sustainable solution to iron and zinc deficiency in food around the world. Reports have highlighted the current strategies for the biofortification of crops, including mineral fertilization, conventional breeding and transgenic approaches. Any approach which could increase root growth and result in a high transfer of Fe and Zn from the soil to the plant is crucial for biofortification. In addition to these approaches, we draw attention to another important aspect of Fe and Zn biofortification: intercropping between dicots and gramineous species. Intercropping, in which at least two crop species are grown on the same plot of land simultaneously, can improve utilization of resources while significantly enhancing crop productivity, whereas monocropping is a traditional cropping system of only one crop growth. Monocropping has maintained crop productivity through heavy chemical inputs including the application of fertilizers and pesticides. Monocropping has therefore resulted in substantial eutrophication, environmental pollution, a food security crisis and economic burdens on farmers. Monocropping has also reduced the plant and microorganism diversity in the ecosystem. Compared with monocropped plants, intercropped plants can use nutrients, water and light better due to the spatial and temporal differences in the growth factors and a variety of species-specific mechanisms of physiological response to environmental stress. Intercropping is common in developing countries such as China, India, Southeast Asia, Latin America and Africa. In particular, interspecific interaction facilitates the iron and zinc nutrition of intercropping systems such as peanut/maize, wheat/chickpea and guava/sorghum or maize. Intercropping also increases iron and zinc content in the seeds. In a peanut/maize case study, the Fe concentrations in peanut shoots and seed were 1.47–2.28 and 1.43 times higher than those of peanut in monocropping, respectively. In intercropping of chickpea and wheat, the Fe contents in wheat and chickpea seed were increased 1.26 and 1.21 times, respectively, and Zn concentration in chickpea seed was 2.82 times higher than that in monocropping. In this review, we focus on exemplary cases of dicot/gramineous species intercropping that result in improved iron and zinc nutrition of the plants. We present the current understanding of the mechanisms of improvement of iron and zinc in intercropping. The available literature shows that a reasonable intercropping system of nutrient-efficient species could prevent or mitigate iron and zinc deficiency of plants. Here, we propose that intercropping can potentially offer an effective and sustainable pathway to iron and zinc biofortification.

The application of digital imaging information technology to seed germination testing is discussed. This technology is reviewed in light of recent interest on the development and adoption of sustainable agrosystems joined with a modern strategy of “precision agriculture”, which provides new complex information tools for better crop production. Basic concepts on the patterns of image analysis descriptors of imbibing seed performance are described with the objective of demonstrating the potential of this technique to be adequate for overcoming problems encountered with a standard seed germination test. The application of different image analysis system prototypes in monitoring seed germination of Brassica, as well as several other crop species, has provided encouraging results, highlighting the reliability of this technique to quickly acquire digital images and to extract numeric descriptors of germination and radicle growth events. Another aspect of digital imaging is the possibility to determine the colour space of a two-dimensional seed surface. Experiments carried out on lentil seed germination have shown that quantitative changes in Red-Green-Blue (RGB) colour component density may be considered as markers of the start of germination. In addition, the extracted RGB data may be used to trace a virtual three-dimensional surface plot allowing a better analysis of colour distribution on the lentil’s surface. RGB colour density can also be used to determine any variation in colour due to the ‘browning effect’ as a result of advancing seed deterioration. The potential of RGB markers in classifying sub-samples and maintaining high germination quality in aged seed samples represents a non-destructive method in seed testing and sorting. As a conclusion, the information flow deriving from digital image processing should be integrated with other bio-morphological, taxonomic and ‘omic-system’ databases. The final target should be an interrelated and complex database for a deeper functional and structural knowledge of plant species, which can respond to the needs of farmers, seed industries, biodiversity conservation and seed basic research.

Certain phenolic acids and flavonoids are described in the literature as marker substances for several unifloral honeys. As not all authors utilised the same methods for extraction and determination, there are remarkable discrepancies in the published data concerning these substances. Ethyl acetate ex- tracts which, aside from phenolic acids, also contain flavonoids were analysed by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole/Time of flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q/TOF-MS). First, the mass spec- tra of 37 phenolic acids and flavonoids described in the literature were recorded. Consequently, sunflower honeys, lime honeys, clover honeys, rape honeys, and honeydew honeys were analysed in regard to these substances. By employing the ChromaLynx TM software, 34 of the 37 substances were identified quickly and clearly. By combining the retention time and the accurate molecular mass, it was even possible to identify several compounds which cannot be detected by diode array detection. flavonoids/ honey/phenolicacids/Timeofflight (TOF)/Ultra Performance LiquidChromatography (UPLC)

TransForum is an innovation program which aims to make a substantial contribution to the transition towards more sustainable development of the Dutch agricultural sector. This article describes the scientific foundation and architecture of this program. TransForum operates on the basis of five working hypotheses which together constitute one integrated analytical framework. These hypotheses are: (1) sustainable development is a dynamic system property; (2) sustainable development needs system innovation; (3) system innovation is a non-linear learning process; (4) system innovation requires active participation of relevant key players from knowledge institutes, governmental bodies, civil society organisations and the business community; (5) the program requires transdisciplinary collaboration of all players. TransForum identifies three new innovation strategies: (1) vital clusters; (2) regional development; (3) international agro-food networks; as alternatives to the current arrangements. Innovative projects are organised in these innovation strategies. The aim of the scientific program is threefold: (1) it addresses research questions raised in the innovative projects; (2) it investigates the need for system-innovations and the way in which they can be realized; (3) it designs research projects to test the five main working hypotheses of the program. The scientific program is organised in four themes following a cyclic innovation process which is constantly monitored. The cycle starts with people’s preferences and images, followed by studies on which inventions are required to achieve a successful innovation. Subsequently, it is investigated how to organize new innovations and transitions and finally, how citizen/consumers behaviour and preferences mobilizes sustainable development, closing the loop.

This paper investigates empirically the economic role of some sociological factors, such as the intensity and nature of local social relationships, on economic growth in rural areas at the micro level. We use the bonding/linking/bridging classification suggested in the social capital literature (Putnam, 2000 ; Woolcock, 1998). Bonding links consist of strong linkages between similar people, which ensure the stability of relationships, but tend to lead to inertia and closure. Bridging links are weak ties that often lead to valuable new opportunities. Linking social capital is an intermediate category that consists of links between people from different social categories. This form of social capital favors both stability and openness. We use French data to examine these three forms of social capital within a local population and employment growth model inspired by Boarnet (1994), and to evaluate their impacts on local economic growth. The results suggest that all three forms of social capital have a robust and positive role on change in rural population and employment., Rôle du capital social sur les composantes de la croissance économique locale : cohésion et ouverture dans les zones rurales françaises Cet article étudie empiriquement le rôle économique de certains facteurs sociologiques, tels que l'intensité et la nature des relations sociales, sur la croissance économique locale à un niveau fin. Il utilise la classification bonding/linking/bridging utilisée dans la littérature sur le capital social. Le bonding se manifeste par des liens forts et locaux qui garantissent la stabilité de l'environnement, mais peuvent aussi engendrer de l'inertie et de la fermeture. Le bridging consiste en des liens plus lâches, mais qui peuvent donner accès à des opportunités nouvelles. Le linking est une catégorie intermédiaire qui comprend des liens reliant des individus de milieux sociaux différents. Cette dernière forme de capital social combine les vertus de stabilisation et d'ouverture. Les trois formes de capital social font l'objet de construction d'indicateurs, qui sont ensuite introduits dans un modèle économétrique de croissance de population et d'emploi inspiré de Boarnet (1994), pour évaluer leur impact sur la croissance locale. Les résultats suggèrent que les trois formes de capital social ont un effet positif et robuste sur la croissance., Callois Jean-Marc, Schmitt Bertrand. The role of social capital components on local economic growth : Local cohesion and openness in French rural areas. In: Revue d’études en Agriculture et Environnement, Vol. 90, N°3, 2009. pp. 257-286.

European foulbrood (EFB) is a serious and widespread disease of honey bee larvae. It is a notifiable disease in the United Kingdom under existing legislation, so colonies must be officially screened for signs of disease. The current study developed a rapid and sensitive test to diagnose EFB in the field. A monoclonal antibody, highly specific for its causative agent, Melissococcus plutonius, was produced, optimised and incorporated into a Lateral Flow Device (LFD). Laboratory trials of LFDs found them to be very effective, detecting M. plutonius in 96–100% (n = 137) of EFB-infected samples with no crossreactivity with other bee brood pathogens. Field validation data was equally robust: correct diagnoses were obtained on 96% (n = 184) of samples subjected to LFD-testing on site; false positives were rare (∼1%). EFB LFDs are now issued to all Appointed Bee Inspectors in England and Wales as the sole diagnostic tool for routine confirmation of M. plutonius infection in the field, allowing much more efficient disease detection and control.

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a ubiquitous bacteria widely used as a biopesticide to control a number of important insect pests. Since the mid-1990s, genetically modified (GM) plants expressing Bt genes have been used as an effective tool to control a wide range of insect pests. In recent years, a wide number of articles addressing the environmental impact of genetically modified plants have been published. However, only a few have addressed the occurrence and distribution of the indigenous Bt population in agricultural systems. Here, culturing and molecular methods were used to study the occurrence of Bt harboring insecticidal cry1 genes in a corn field. Samples of corn leaves and soil were collected in July and August 2007 from a 10 ha corn field in Northern Italy. The results showed that the highest Bt density was in leaves located near the soil surface. The incidence of Bt isolates harboring antilepidopteran cry1 genes was 42% of the total tested isolates. Approximately 20% of the Bt isolates harbored the cry1Ab and cry1Ac genes. Similarly to Bt density, the highest abundance of isolates harboring cry1 genes was found in leaves collected near the plant collar. Less than 9% of the Bt isolated from soil harbored cry1 genes. Density of Bt was reduced by application of the insecticide chlorpiryfos. This effect appeared to be due to simply washing off effects of the insecticide treatment to the corn phyllosphere. This study showed that Bt was fairly abundant in the corn agroecosystem and that the high incidence of isolates harboring antilepidopterean cry1 genes could have a role in preserving the sustainability of the agroecosystem.

Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata Say, is the most destructive insect pest of potatoes. When the population of beetles is high, plants can be completely defoliated and commercial potato production is nearly impossible without control of the beetle. The beetles have shown a tremendous ability to develop resistance against insecticides. Previously, a biotechnology approach to control Colarado potato beetle based on the use of the synthetic Bt gene was developed. In this article, a transformation procedure for three commercial Bulgarian potato cultivars was developed and potentially commercial transgenic lines have been selected based on field resistance to Colorado potato beetles and yield. Plants were transformed with the Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cry3A gene using Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. 110 plants from the three cultivars were regenerated and tested by double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA). The Cry3A protein accumulation varied across the transgenic lines, rating from very low to 71.5 μg/g fresh weight. 21 transgenic lines expressing the Cry3A protein at levels above 10 μg/g fresh weight were tested in two successive years in filed conditions at two different locations of the country. All transgenic lines compared with the controls, nontransgenic potatoes from the respective cultivar, were consistently protected from foliar damages from all developmental stages of the beetle. The comparison of all properties of the tested transgenic lines, including variety phenotypes and tuber yield, allowed the selection of the most promising 2–3 lines per cultivar. Selected lines produced tuber amounts 80–100% higher compared with the control, non-transgenic plants. Those lines were grown for mass propagation during the third year of field experiments. The presence of the transgene in these lines was confirmed with the use of primers specific to the transgene by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Additionally, the results from the insect bioassay showed that these lines were highly resistant to insect feeding, leading to 100% of mortality of larval populations. In summary, we generated potentially commercial potato lines highly resistant to Colorado potato beetle using Bt technology that may have a profound impact on development of sustainable agriculture in Bulgaria. This is one of the several agriculture biotechnology products entirely developed and tested in Bulgaria.

Iodine deficiency disorders are one of the commonest preventable human health problems. Producing iodine-enriched crops could be an effective way to reduce their epidemicity in many regions. However, the actual knowledge on this issue is limited mostly to studies involving grain crops and inorganic iodine fertilizers such as I− and IO 3 − . Moreover, the translocation, transformation and distribution of iodine from soil to plants are not well understood. Here, we studied iodine transfer from soil to vegetables using both inorganic iodine (KI) and organic, seaweed iodine. Greenhouse culture experiments were undertaken to assess the absorption and accumulation of iodine by four vegetables: Chinese cabbage, lettuce, tomato and carrot. We also investigated the dynamic variation of exogenous iodine in soil by applying KI and a composite of seaweed and diatomite. Our results show first that iodine levels in vegetables increase with the increasing addition of iodine. Second, the iodine content in the edible portion ranks as follows: Chinese cabbage (high I) > lettuce > carrot > tomato (low I). The iodine accumulation in the edible portion of the cabbage is thus 2.25 and 4.45 times higher than that of lettuce and carrot, respectively, and 19.67 times higher than that of tomato. In vegetable tissues the iodine distribution is ranked as: root (high I) > leaf > stem > fruit (low I), except for carrot, where the average iodine level in the rhizome is 50% of the shoot. Third, vegetable growth is inhibited when the added iodine concentration is higher than 50 mg kg−1. The order of tolerance against iodine toxicity is ranked as: carrot (high tolerance) > Chinese cabbage > lettuce > tomato (low tolerance). Fourth, the seaweed composite iodine fertilizer demonstrates more potential of durability than KI. Indeed, when KI is added to the soil at 150 mg kg−, the biomass of cabbage, lettuce, tomato and carrot decreases by 34.8%, 41.3%, 46.8% and 17.9%, respectively. By comparison, the biomass decreases are lower, 16.6%, 22.9%, 23.4% and 9.7%, respectively, when applying the seaweed composite. Fifth, after harvest, the residual iodine in soil fertilized with KI is only 56% of the initial addition, which is less than that for seaweed composite. This study is of theoretical importance to understand iodine biogeochemistry and its transfer behavior, and also has practical implications for seeking effective alternatives of iodine biofortification to prevent iodine deficiency disorders.

Green manure catch crops promote the sustainability of agricultural systems by reducing soil erodibility and by nutrient uptake and transfer to the following main crops. This effect efficiently reduces the risk of nitrate leaching. Biological nitrogen fixation by legume catch crops is an additional benefit, mainly in organic farming. Such crops may, however, reduce nitrogen uptake from the soil and increase nitrate leaching. Additionally, under drought conditions, their extra water consumption may outweigh the beneficial effects. To determine the best catch crop management in stockless organic farming under dry, Pannonian site conditions in eastern Austria, four treatments were compared in 2002 and 2004: (1) legumes: field pea, common vetch and chickling vetch, (2) non-legumes: phacelia, oil radish and turnip, (3) a legume and non-legume mixture (all mentioned components), and (4) a bare fallow control. Our results show that catch crop biomass and N yield, biological N fixation, and crop N uptake from the soil were about 4 times higher under moderately dry conditions in 2002 than under drought conditions in summer and autumn 2004. In 2002, the legume/non-legume mixture had the highest biomass and N yield and the highest biological N fixation. Both the legume/non-legume mixture and the non-legumes were more efficient than legumes in N uptake from the soil (+32 kg N ha−1); and in reducing both soil inorganic N contents by −45 kg N ha−1 and nitrate concentrations in soil solution by −20 mg N L−. These findings show that the legume/non-legume mixture combined the positive effects of non-legumes and legumes. In 2004, catch crop effects did not differ except for their above-mentioned effect on inorganic N contents. The only pre-crop effect was that of legumes compared with non-legumes on spring barley grain dry matter of +0.6 Mg DM ha−1 and grain N yield of +17 kg N ha−1 in 2005. The water consumption of catch crops never adversely affected the following crops.

Hourly weight data, from 4 honey bee hives placed on balances linked to dataloggers, were divided into two independent parts: (1) daily running average and (2) detrended weights, obtained by subtracting the running average from raw data. Weekly changes in running average weights, WCRAW, were correlated with food store changes but not adult or brood weights. Detrended weights showed daily fluctuation due to water and foraging bee movement and were modeled using sine curves, which fit all weekly subsets. Adult and brood populations, measured independently, were expressed as colony consumption rates via published per capita rates, and those consumption rates were correlated with sine amplitudes. Amplitudes were more sensitive to hive activity than WCRAW and unlike WCRAW detected high activity when foraging success was masked by high consumption Estimating food store changes with WCRAW and colony consumption with amplitudes reveals hive growth and activity without disturbing bees.

International audience

Au Kazakhstan, la cohabitation du chameau de Bactriane, du dromadaire et de leurs hybrides est un fait courant au sein même des fermes. La composition physico-chimique de 147 échantillons de lait provenant de 57 chameaux de Bactriane, 70 dromadaires et 20 hybrides a été déterminée. Les échantillons ont été prélevés dans 4 fermes provenant de 4 régions différentes aux 4 saisons au cours d'une année. Comparé à celui de dromadaire, le lait de chamelle de Bactriane apparaît plus riche en matière grasse (6,67 vs. 5,94 %), vitamine C (177 vs. 152 mgL-1), calcium (1,30 vs. 1,16 gL-1), et phosphore (1,07 vs. 0,91 gL-1). L'indice d'iode est significativement plus élevé dans le lait de dromadaire (16,69) que dans le lait de chamelle de Bactriane (14,99). Afin de distinguer les deux types de lait, une analyse discriminante a été mise en oeuvre après avoir éliminé les effets liés à la variabilité saisonnière et régionale. Les paramètres discriminants sont le phosphore (coefficient linéaire discriminant=–1,00), le pH(–0,408), la vitamine C (–0,377) et la matière grasse (–0,226), en concentrations plus élevées dans le lait de Bactriane que dans celui de dromadaire. L'indice d'iode (0,287) était plus élevé dans le lait de dromadaire. Après une analyse discriminante quadratique, on peut prédire d'après la composition du lait, l'origine spécifique avec un pourcentage de bien classés de 75,4 %. La composition chimique du lait des hybrides s'est avérée intermédiaire mais avec un faible pouvoir discriminant.

Honeybee (Apis mellifera) subspecies usually are distinguished by standard morphometry methods, based mainly on multivariate analysis of distances and angles. Recently another method of statistical analysis of shape, geometric morphometrics, has been developed. The new method is based on characteristic points described by Cartesian coordinates. The two methods were used here to discriminate three honeybee subspecies (A. m. mellifera, A. m. carnica and A. m. caucasica) according to forewing venation. Forewing venation was described either by coordinates of 18 vein junctions and centroid size or by 4 distances and 11 angles. All colonies, described by mean of 10 workers, were correctly classified using both methods. In the case of individual wings discrimination, geometric morphometrics was 84.9% successful and standard morphometry was 83.8% successful. The results show that geometric morphometrics is marginally more reliable than standard morphometry for discrimination of honeybee subspecies.

In Morocco, yields of date palms are highly decreased by the pathogen fungi Fusarium oxysporum. To solve this issue, mycorrhizal fungi and biocontrol agents could enhance plant resistance to pathogens. Here, we studied peroxidases in roots and leaves of Phoenix dactylifera in response to inoculation with the fungi Glomus mosseae and Trichoderma harzianum. Date palm plants were harvested 57 weeks after inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi and biocontrol fungi. We measured the dry biomass, arbuscular colonization, cytochemistry of peroxidase, and peroxidase forms and activities in roots and leaves. Our results show that mycorrhization increased the plant dry biomass by about 57%. The rate of mycorrhizal colonization ranged from 25% to 30%. Peroxidase activity in roots colonized by T. harzianum alone was 1.6 times higher than in control plants. Peroxidase activity in roots colonized by G. mosseae and T. harzianum was about 2 times higher than in control plants. Peroxidase activity in leaves increased by + 419% when plants were inoculated by both fungi. The cytochemical results show an accumulation of structural substances in root cell walls after inoculation with T. harzianum. These structural substances may increase the mechanical strength of the host cell walls in order to inhibit pathogen invasion. Peroxidase activities were found in plant cell walls; the tonoplast and host plasmalemma in the chloroplast; mitochondrial membranes; and intercellular spaces of plants inoculated with G. mosseae and T. harzianum. SDS-PAGE analyses of leaf extracts gave a main band at 54 kDa for all the treatments. The stimulatory effect of Trichoderma on the peroxidase activity is a resistance mechanism of date plants to pathogens. The use of Trichoderma could thus be an alternative to chemicals in crop protection.

Scrapie eradication efforts cost 18 million dollars annually in the United States and rely heavily upon PRNP genotyping of sheep. Genetic resistance might reduce goat scrapie and limit the risk of goats serving as a scrapie reservoir, so PRNP coding sequences were examined from 446 goats of 10 breeds, 8 of which had not been previously examined at PRNP. The 10 observed alleles were all related to one of two central haplotypes by a single amino acid substitution. At least five of these alleles (M142, R143, S146, H154, and K222) have been associated with increased incubation time or decreased odds of scrapie. To the best of our knowledge, neither S146 nor K222 has been found in any goats with scrapie, though further evaluation will be required to demonstrate true resistance. S146 was more common, present in several breeds at widely varying frequencies, while K222 was observed only in two dairy breeds at low frequency. Overall, this study provides frequency data on PRNP alleles in US goats, shows the pattern of relationships between haplotypes, and demonstrates segregation of multiple scrapieassociated alleles in several breeds not examined before at PRNP.

Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera; AHB) are predominant in tropical Mexico. A selection program using local AHBs colonies is a good alternative to provide beekeepers with good quality queens. We evaluated the application of field and laboratory tests to predict the production of honey in AHBs from Yucatan, Mexico. Five variables were measured in worker bees in the laboratory: longevity, amount of syrup removed, hoarding, weight of pupae and corbicular area. Three additional variables were measured in the field: rate of foraging activity, volume of honey sac contents and colony weight gain per week. Our results showed that weekly colony weight gain had the highest correlation with honey production in AHBs. Only the corbicular area and worker longevity were not correlated with honey production (r = 0.256 and r = 0.074, respectively P > 0.05). Thus, short term colony weight gain can be recommended as a good estimate of honey production in AHBs and lab tests can be included as selection aids.

In the literature hydrophilic glutamyl di- and tripeptides have been described to induce an umami or savoury taste. In this study, HILIC-ESI-MS was applied for analysis of low-molecular-weight peptides in the ultra-filtrated (cut-off 10 kg · mol−1) water-soluble extract of two mature Cheddar cheeses, selected because of their pronounced savoury flavour. A reference mixture of amino acids and di- and tripeptides was successfully separated by HILIC using ammonium acetate buffer (0.50 g·L−1, pH 5.5) as the mobile phase. Unambiguous identification of the compounds was based on retention time and characteristic fragmentation patterns in MS/MS and MS3. However, no low-molecular-weight glutamyl peptides were identified in the extracts of the mature Cheddar cheeses. It was concluded that hydrophilic glutamyl di- and tripeptides are not a precondition for savoury flavour in mature Cheddar cheese.

The potential of some natural compounds (thymol, vetiver essential oil, lysozyme, resveratrol) for the control of nosema infection in honeybees was evaluated. A first trial aimed at screening substances, in candy preparations, on the basis of their toxicity to honeybees and bees’ dietary preferences. None of the tested substances showed an increased bee mortality or decreased bee preference, and were therefore considered suitable for further testing. In the second trial the effects of the natural compounds on nosema diseased honeybees were evaluated: bees were individually dosed with nosema spores and fed candies prepared with the screened substances. The results showed that bees fed with thymol and resveratrol candies had significantly lower infection rates, and bees supplied with resveratrol prepared candy also lived significantly longer. We suggest that thymol and resveratrol could be useful in alternative strategies for the control of nosema disease.

Africanized honey bees (AHBs Apis mellifera) have been reported in NW Mexico since the mid 90s, but no study on the process of admixture with local European honey bees has been conducted. Morphometrics and haplotype analyses were used to investigate the frequency of African markers in honey bees from Sonora (SON), the north and south of Baja California (BCN and BCS). Morphometrics identified 42% of the samples from SON, 44% from BCN and 15% of BCS as Africanized. Honey bees from BCS had larger body size and formed a separate cluster from BCN and SON which were similar to each other. The molecular analysis revealed a higher frequency of African-derived haplotypes in SON (48%) and BCN (50%) compared to BCS (21%). The morphometric and molecular evidence suggests that the colonization of BCS by AHBs may be recent. Nest and food availability in desert areas and beekeeping practices are evoked to explain the reduced introgression of African genes into honey bee populations from this region of Mexico.

Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most toxic heavy metals, polluting the general environment. The application of sewage sludge, wastewaters and Cd-containing fertilizers causes an increase in Cd content in agricultural soils. Cd is easily taken up by plants and then enters the food chain, resulting in a serious health issue for humans. There is increasing concern regarding the occurrence of cadmium in rice, not only in the rice-growing areas of the Far East, but also in Europe. In this work we highlighted that, even when the agricultural soil is unpolluted and the concentration of Cd is low, e.g. 0.96 mg kg−1, the Cd content of rice may still exceed the regulatory limit of 0.2 mg kg−1. To reduce the uptake of Cd by rice, paddy-field flooding and soil amendment with lime and compost were tested in a field trial during 2003 and 2004 in Rosate, near Milan, Italy. We found that submersion was the main factor decreasing the Cd concentration in rice grain, producing maximum concentrations of 0.14 mg kg−1 in 2003 and 0.06 mg kg−1 in 2004. By comparison, Cd concentrations was at least two times higher for rice cultivated by irrigation only. Moreover, the addition of lime decreased the Cd concentration of rice by about 25% versus control under dry conditions. Lime addition thus appears to be a promising technique to reduce the bioavailability of soil Cd and minimize Cd concentrations in the produced rice. In contrast, the application of compost alone does not produced a significant effect. Differences in uptake over the years, with concentrations up to 40% lower in 2004, can be explained by differences in transpiration. These results shows that the influence of climatic conditions on Cd uptake in plants should not be underestimated. Such agronomic information represents a very helpful tool for rice growers, in particular in the case of cultivation of Cd-polluted soils and production of Cd-contaminated rice grain.

Cotton produced in Uzbekistan has a low water and fertilizer use efficiency and yield is below its potential. To introduce improved production methods, knowledge is required on how the agro-ecosystem would respond to these alternatives. For this assessment, dynamic simulation models such as the crop-soil simulation model CropSyst are useful tools. CropSyst had never been applied to cotton, so it first was calibrated to the cotton variety Khorezm-127 grown under researcher-managed optimal conditions in the Khorezm region of Uzbekistan in 2005. The model performance was evaluated with a data set obtained in 2004 on two farmer-managed sites. Both data sets comprised in-situ measurements of leaf area index and aboveground biomass. In addition, the 2004 data set included the normalized difference vegetation index derived from satellite imagery of the two cotton fields, which provided estimations of leaf area index with a high temporal resolution. The calibrated optimum mean daily temperature for cotton growth was 25 °C., the specific leaf area 13.0 m2 kg−1, the leaf/stem partition coefficient 3.0, the biomass/transpiration coefficient 8.1 kg m−2 kPa m−2 and the radiation use efficiency 2.0 g MJ−1. Simulations matched 2005 data, achieving a root mean square error between simulated and observed leaf area index and aboveground biomass of 0.36 m2 m−2 and 0.97 Mg ha−1, respectively. The evaluation showed that early cotton growth and leaf area index development could be simulated with sufficient accuracy using CropSyst. However, final aboveground biomass was slightly overestimated by CropSyst, because some unaccounted plant stress at the sites diminished actual aboveground biomass, leading to a root means square error of around 2 Mg ha−1. Some characteristics of cotton, such as the indeterminate growth habit, could not be incorporated in detail in the model. However, these simplifications were compensated by various other advantages of CropSyst, such as the option to simulate crop-rotation or its generic crop growth routine that allows modelling of additional, undocumented crops. The availability of normalized difference vegetation index data with a high temporal and acceptable spatial resolution opened possibilities for a precise, in-expensive and resource-efficient way of model evaluation.

The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of heat treatment of sweet creams on the physicochemical properties of sweet industrial buttermilks. Creams with three different heat treatments: low, medium and high, were churned and the corresponding buttermilks were characterised. Furthermore, buttermilks were renneted and centrifuged to obtain insoluble pellets and supernatants. The physicochemical properties such as the particle size measured by laser light scattering and composition of creams, buttermilks, pellets and supernatants were determined and compared. Buttermilk had a composition close to that of skim milk but it contained more phospholipids (PL): 958 (± 137) mg·kg−1, compared with 120 mg·kg−1 in milk. The heat treatment induced a significant decrease in soluble protein contents in creams, buttermilks and soluble fractions as well as an increase in the buttermilk PL/fat ratio, and an increase in supernatant protein and total solids. Buttermilk and supernatant particle sizes ranged from 0.03 to 200 μm, with a maximum at 130 nm, which may correspond to small milk fat globules, phospholipid vesicles or protein aggregates. Fat and PL in buttermilks were recovered in supernatants. The use of buttermilk enzymatic coagulation combined with centrifugation may constitute a means to fractionate milk PL.

For obtaining accurate and reliable gene expression results it is essential that quantitative realtime RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) data are normalized with appropriate reference genes. The current exponential increase in postgenomic studies on the honey bee, Apis mellifera, makes the standardization of qRT-PCR results an important task for ongoing community efforts. For this aim we selected four candidate reference genes (actin, ribosomal protein 49, elongation factor 1-alpha, tbp-association factor) and used three software-based approaches (geNorm, BestKeeper and NormFinder) to evaluate the suitability of these genes as endogenous controls. Their expression was examined during honey bee development, in different tissues, and after juvenile hormone exposure. Furthermore, the importance of choosing an appropriate reference gene was investigated for two developmentally regulated target genes. The results led us to consider all four candidate genes as suitable genes for normalization in A. mellifera. However, each condition evaluated in this study revealed a specific set of genes as the most appropriated ones.

Soil erosion is a critical environmental problem throughout the world’s terrestrial ecosystems. Erosion inflicts multiple, serious damages in managed ecosystems such as crops, pastures, or forests as well as in natural ecosystems. In particular, erosion reduces the water-holding capacity because of rapid water runoff, and reduces soil organic matter. As a result, nutrients and valuable soil biota are transported. At the same time, species diversity of plants, animals, and microbes is significantly reduced. One of the most effective measures for erosion control and regeneration the degraded former soil is the establishment of plant covers. Indeed, achieving future of safe environment depends on conserving soil, water, energy, and biological resources. Soil erosion can be controlled through a process of assessment at regional scales for the development and restoration of the plant cover, and the introduction of conservation measures in the areas at greatest risk. Thus, conservation of these vital resources needs to receive high priority to ensure the effective protection of managed and natural ecosystems. This review article highlights three majors topics: (1) the impact of erosion of soil productivity with particular focus on climate and soil erosion; soil seal and crust development; and C losses from soils; (2) land use and soil erosion with particular focus on soil loss in agricultural lands; shrub and forest lands; and the impact of erosion in the Mediterranean terraced lands; and (3) the impact of plant covers on soil erosion with particular focus on Mediterranean factors affecting vegetation; plant roots and erosion control; and plant cover and biodiversity.

Enhancing food production and supporting civil/engineering structures have been the principal foci of soil science research during most of the 19th and the first seven or eight decades of the 20th century. Demands on soil resources during the 21st century and beyond include: (i) increasing agronomic production to meet the food needs of additional 3.5 billion people that will reside in developing countries along with likely shift in food habits from plant-based to animal-based diet, (ii) producing ligno-cellulosic biomass through establishment of energy plantations on agriculturally surplus/marginal soils or other specifically identified lands, (iii) converting degraded/desertified soils to restorative land use for enhancing biodiversity and improving the environment, (iv) sequestering carbon in terrestrial (soil and trees) and aquatic ecosystems to off-set industrial emissions and stabilize the atmospheric abundance of CO2 and other greenhouse gases, (v) developing farming/cropping systems which improve water use efficiency and minimize risks of water pollution, contamination and eutrophication, and (vi) creating reserves for species preservation, recreation and enhancing aesthetic value of soil resources. Realization of these multifarious soil functions necessitate establishment of inter-disciplinary approach with close linkages between soil scientists and chemists, physicists, geologists, hydrologists, climatologists, biologists, system engineers (nano technologists), computer scientists and information technologists, economists, social scientists and molecular geneticists dealing with human, animal and microbial processes. While advancing the study of basic principles and processes, soil scientists must also reach out to other disciplines to address the global issues of the 21st century and beyond.

The promise of low-input high-diversity prairies to provide sustainable bioenergy production has recently been emphasized. This review article presents a critical discussion of some controversial points of using grasslands to produce bioenergy. The following issues are addressed: proteins vs. biofuels; reactive nitrogen emissions; biodiversity; and effective land use. Two major disadvantages in deriving bioenergy from grasslands are identified: (1) marginal lands are displaced from their fundamental role of producing meat and milk foods, in contrast with the rising worldwide demand for high-quality food; and (2) the combustion of N-rich grassland biomass, or by-products, results in emission of reactive N into the atmosphere and dramatically reduces the residence time of biologically-fixed nitrogen in the ecosystems. Nitrogen oxides, released during atmospheric combustion of fossil fuels and biomass, have a detrimental effect on global warming. Since intensively managed crops on fertile soils need to be cultivated to fulfil the dietary needs of populations, the potential role of inedible cereal crop residues in providing bioenergy merits consideration. This might spare more marginal land area for forage production or even for full natural use, in order to sustain high levels of biodiversity. Owing to the complexity of terrestrial systems, and the complexity of interactions, a modeling effort is needed in order to predict and quantify outcomes of specific combination of land use at higher integration levels.

Little is known about the temporal organization of defensive behavior in honeybees. We studied “guards”, the best-characterized class of colony defenders. We synchronized small groups under a light-dark illumination regime (LD), and video recorded their aggression toward an intruder bumblebee worker. In 1 out of 3 trials (each trial with a different source colony), the latency before the first attack was longer during the night in LD, or subjective night in constant conditions (DD); a similar trend was observed in DD in the two other trials. In 2 out of 3 trials, the number of stinging attempts varied with highest levels during the day in DD, but not in LD. There was a similar trend for the number of biting events. These findings reveal temporal variation in aggression under constant conditions, consistent with the hypothesis that the circadian clock influences guard aggressiveness. Nevertheless, the variability between LD and DD and across colonies calls for additional studies before reaching a definitive conclusion.

A correlation was found between the measured refraction index of royal jelly and its water content as determined by vacuum oven drying. Twenty-seven different royal jelly samples were analysed for their water content by performing 24 hour vacuum drying at 48 °C, obtaining values that covered almost the entire range reported in literature. The refraction index values for the same samples were measured using a thermostated Abbe refractometer. A simple linear relationship (R2 = 0.96) between refraction index and water content was found proving the fitness of a refractometric measure for quality control purposes. The relationship provides estimates of water content that are similar to those resulting from the Wedmore equation (R2 = 0.9999) used to estimate water content in honey. The refractometric evaluation of the water content provides sufficient reliability for the routine quality control of royal jelly and is faster and simpler than currently used methods.

We investigated the protein complement of the hypopharyngeal gland (HG) of winter worker bees from a strain of Apis mellifera artificially selected for increased royal jelly yield and A. m. carnica winter worker bees. Proteins were partially identified using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE). MALDI-TOF MS and protein engine identification tools that were utilized for the honeybee genome. Most identified proteins in the two bees strains were assigned to major royal jelly (RJ) proteins (MRJPs). Marked differences were found in the heterogeneity of the MRJPs, in particular MRJP3. Two of the proteins, α-glucosidase and glucose oxidase, were related to carbohydrate metabolism and energy. For the first time in the HG of honeybees, two proteins, peroxiredoxin and thioredoxin peroxidase, which are related to antioxidation functions, and actin 5C, a major cytoskeletal actin protein which may supply enough actin for normal function of cells, have been identified. Results suggest that the HGs serve a storage function in winter and that during the winter period the HG of high RJ producing bees store more proteins than those of Carnica bees.

Whey protein concentrate (WPC) is a nutritious ingredient and has gained popularity to be used in many traditional and novel food products. It typically has a shelf-life of 9 to 18 months when stored at room temperature. Fresh manufactured WPC could have a bland or slightly dairy, whey flavor. However, recognizable off-flavor can be developed during storage and this off-flavor becomes one of the major factors limiting its application in delicate formula. To understand the off-flavor development during the storage, WPC 80 and Instantized WPC 80 samples were stored at 35, 40 and 45 °C for a period of 15 weeks. Selected volatile compounds including dimethyl disulfide, pentanal, hexanal, heptanal, 2-heptanol, 2-octanone, octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, 1-nonanol and 2-nonanol were analyzed using headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography. The results showed that the concentrations of most of these compounds considerably increased during storage, especially when stored at 45 °C. Instantized WPC showed higher lipid oxidation compounds than regular WPC while removal of oxygen reduced their formation.

In the European food sector private labels represent a relevant and increasing share of total sales. Focusing on price strategies, recent theoretical papers conclude that private label development should cause a decrease in the price of national brands, while some empirical studies do not support this prediction. The aim of this study is to explore this empirical relationship for the Italian dairy sector. Using retail sales data, we study how prices of national brands react to private label growth. We find that the impact of private label development on national brand prices is product specific : a negative impact is registered by industrial products such as butter and mascarpone and by highly differentiated products such as yogurt. Positive effect is found in the case of traditional cheeses produced by strong national brands., Impact du développement des marques de distributeurs selon le type d’enseigne : le cas des produits laitiers en Italie En Europe, les marques de distributeurs (MDD) représentent une part importante et croissante du chiffre d’affaires de la grande distribution. En matière de stratégies de prix, des travaux théoriques récents montrent, contrairement à d’autres travaux plus empiriques, que l’essor des MDD entraîne une baisse des prix des marques nationales (MN). L’objectif de l’article est d’analyser cette relation de façon empirique dans le secteur des produits laitiers en Italie. En utilisant des données de vente au détail, nous étudions l’effet du développement des MDD sur le prix des MN. Nos résultats montrent que cet impact est spécifique au produit : il est négatif pour des produits industriels (beurre, mascarpone) et pour des produits fortement différenciés (yaourt), il est positif dans le cas des fromages traditionnels pour lesquels les MN sont fortes., Sckokai Paolo, Soregaroli Claudio. Impact of private label development across retail formats: Evidences from the Italian dairy market. In: Revue d’études en Agriculture et Environnement, N°87, 2008-2. pp. 27-47.

The article provides an empirical study of the redistributive effects of agricultural policy in Tuscany which finds that the provision of support increased absolute income inequality within the agricultural community because the distribution of transfers was both vertically and horizontally inequitable. These conclusions are shown to hold whether or not non-farm incomes are taken into account and for a range of alternative definitions of the agricultural community. The results for Scotland are broadly comparable except that the distribution of transfers was progressive not regressive, reflecting differences between the two regions in the degree of dependency of agriculture on support., Analyse comparative des effets redistributifs de la politique agricole en Toscane et en Écosse L’article développe une étude empirique des effets redistributifs de la politique agricole dans la région de Toscane. Il apparait que les aides ont augmenté les inégalités de revenu en absolu parmi les agriculteurs en raison d’une distribution des transferts inéquitable, à la fois verticalement et horizontalement. On montre que ces conclusions demeurent valables que l’on considère ou non les revenus non-agricoles et pour différentes définitions de l’exploitant agricole. Les résultats pour l’Écosse sont globalement comparables sauf que la distribution des transferts est progressive et non-régressive, reflétant les différences entre les deux régions dans le degré de dépendance de leur agriculture aux aides., Allanson Paul, Rocchi Benedetto. A comparative analysis of the redistributive effects of agricultural policy in Tuscany and Scotland. In: Revue d’études en Agriculture et Environnement, N°86, 2008-1. pp. 35-56.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of protective media and different relative vapour pressures (RVPs) on the survival of probiotics during freeze drying and subsequent storage, to determine the optimal conditions for the production of freeze dried probiotics at industrial scale, ensuring a high survival rate. The effect of protective media i.e. reconstituted skimmed milk (RSM) or either of the cryoprotective disaccharides lactose, trehalose, sucrose, maltose, lactose + maltose and lactose + trehalose on the survival of a probiotic culture was assessed at five different RVP environments (0.0%, 11.4%, 33.2%, 44.1% and 76.1%) at room temperature in freeze-dried systems. RVP was shown to have a significant effect on the survival rates of the probiotic cultures Lactobacillus paracasei NFBC 338 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG following freeze drying in RSM. Interestingly, retention of cell viability was greatest for cells stored at 11.4% RVP, but was compromised at all other RVPs tested. However, an increased tolerance to freeze drying was observed for L. rhamnosus GG when dried in the presence of disaccharides in the order of trehalose = lactose + maltose ⩾ lactose + trehalose ⩾ maltose > lactose > sucrose. Survival studies over a 38–40 day storage period indicated that trehalose and lactose + maltose were the most effective cryoprotective additives, especially notable at 0.0 and 11.4% RVP. At all other RVPs tested, viability was compromised. Crystallisation of the disaccharides was observed to be a detrimental factor affecting the survival of Lactobacillus during storage at high RVP, where an inverse relationship was shown to exist between the % RVP and the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the disaccharides.

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The release of nitrogen on pastures by the grazing animal is a significant source of N load to soil and water and hence a possible source of nitrate pollution. Here we studied the effect of forage quantity and quality related to N intake to examine excretion and loss. A two-year grazing experiment on an intensively managed Lolio-Cynosuretum was established in Rengen Research Station, Germany. Two groups of 4 suckler cows each were grazed along a gradient of forage mass and quality consisting of 16 plots each in 4 replicates per year. Our results show that in the final plots of the gradient, forage mass exceeded by far the recommended optimum of herbage allowance. At the same time, herbage quality decreased along that gradient from about 11 to 9.5 MJ metabolisable energy per kg dry matter, but daily N intake increased from 140 to 600 g N per animal. The related N excretion per animal was constant, with faeces at about 60 to 75 g N. In contrast, daily N excretion with urine increased linearly depending on N intake from less than 100 g to more than 500 g per animal. Thus, N loss was estimated to increase in the same way and was determined as about 22% of total N intake. We conclude that low quality in tall swards, including partly senesced plant material, does not imply low herbage and N intake and N excretion. Our findings indicate that in grassland extensification schemes, where late turning out to pasture is common, N intake and hence excretion might disagree with the intention of limiting forage N conversion and subsequent release to the environment. We also provide a simple spreadsheet with which farmers can quantify the N excretion as a factor of herbage allowance, faeces N content, daily N retention and stocking density. This appears useful not only under standard conditions on improved grassland, but also in environmentally sensitive areas where N release is required to be kept under strict control.

No-till wheat management systems with a living mulch is a possible means to improve agricultural sustainability. Nonetheless living mulches may affect wheat production by competition for light and nutrients. Therefore, here we studied competition for light and nitrogen between wheat and different living mulches under no-till. We grew wheat using three different practices: (1) conventionally-tilled wheat, (2) no-till wheat and (3) wheat undersown with various living mulches. Living mulches were: red fescue, sheep’s fescue, alfalfa, bird’s-foot-trefoil, black medic, and white clover. We measured: leaf area index and height of wheat and living mulch, and radiation partitioning between species; above-ground biomass of wheat and living mulch; nitrogen uptake of wheat and living mulch; and wheat nitrogen status using a nitrogen nutrition index. Our results showed that at flowering, competition for light between mixed species occurred in sixteen out of the eighteen situations, i.e. in three experiments times six no-till/living mulch treatments. Further, the biomass of wheat grown with living mulches was 24–84% lower than no-till wheat alone. At flowering, competition for nitrogen only occurred in seven out of the eighteen situations. Our findings showed that competition for light was due to light partitioning between mixed species. Furthermore, we found that the light competitive ability of wheat undersown with a living mulch was the highest when wheat was much taller than living mulch, and also when wheat leaf area in the mixed canopy layer was greater than that of living mulch. We conclude that the negative effects of living mulches on wheat yield should be solved by a careful choice of living mulch species and the control of living mulches by mechanical or chemical means.

Low-input measures is used as a generic term for all measures involving a reduced intensity of agricultural management to enhance the quality of biotic or abiotic goods. Intensive agricultural regions have the lowest share of implemented low-input measures, though they have to resolve the most serious nature conservation and environmental problems. To understand the conditions for a better implementation of these measures in intensive agricultural areas, we carried out a written survey among 865 farmers in intensively-used arable regions. The adoption patterns of arable and grassland measures were compared. The determining factors were analysed by logistic regression. Arable measures, such as mulch seeding, that claim a high share of the arable area often have comparatively slight restrictions and cause windfall gains. However, our results show that their adoption increases the ratio of probability of a subsequent implementation of low-input measures on grasslands by 0.05. This means that these arable measures can act as starting measures for probably more valuable low-input measures on grasslands. Furthermore, the relation of the farmers with their subsidising institution proved to have an influence in our analysis. With every next best rating the farmers give for their relation with their subsidising institution, the ratio of probability for the adoption of low-input measures on arable land rises by 0.3. We also detected a strong positive influence of defined contact persons within the subsidising institution on the probability of adopting grassland measures, with a ratio of probability of 4.802. These findings show that the subsidising institution has in many respects a central influence on the decision process of the farmer to adopt low-input measures. The described determinants reveal new insights usable for improving the off-farm conditions of an increased implementation of low-input measures in intensively-used arable regions.

Agricultural systems of Southern European regions are often based on short rotations of winter cereals and are thus subject to agro-ecological problems such as decreasing biodiversity, loss of soil fertility and increasing reliance on mineral fertilisers. Introducing new crops such as new varieties of faba bean, and new production methods, e.g. different planting times, may increase the sustainability of farming systems. To advance the use of these methods, both multi-environment field experiments and improved statistical methods to summarise and interpret results are needed. This report summarizes experiments conducted over three years and two locations where we compared phenology, morphology and yield of six faba bean, Vicia faba L., genotypes, sown in November and February. We have analyzed the data using canonical variate and additive main effect multiplicative interaction (AMMI). We demonstrate how such methods may be useful to obtain relevant information about a more successful introduction of faba bean in southern Europe. Our results show that sowing in November is much more suitable to Southern European regions than a February planting. Indeed, for the November planting, beans flower earlier and pods fill before the drought period. Concerning morphology, November sown plants were taller of 0.93 m versus 0.79 m on average; gave a lower insertion of first fertile branch of 0.44 m versus 0.51 m; gave a higher number of lateral branching per plant, of 1.5 versus 0.8; and gave a higher number of pods per plant of 10.2 versus 7.6. On the average yield levels were the highest for November sown varieties, of 3.55 versus 2.66 t ha−1. These findings indicate autumn sown faba bean could be introduced in Southern European regions. Using adequate varietal selection, this crop may improve the agro-environmental sustainability of farming systems. These results also highlight the usefulness of canonical variate and AMMI analysis, as 576 morphological data, e.g. 6 varieties, 2 sowing times, 6 environments and 8 variables, and 72 yield data, e.g. 6 varieties, 2 sowing times and 6 environments, can be summarised in two bi-plots, clearly depicting the effect of sowing dates on crop morphology and yield, across locations and years. Such methods deserve a more widespread use when it is necessary to interpret crop response to environmental and agronomic factors.

Microarray analyses have become an important tool in animal genomics. While their use is becoming widespread, there is still a lot of ongoing research regarding the analysis of microarray data. In the context of a European Network of Excellence, 31 researchers representing 14 research groups from 10 countries performed and discussed the statistical analyses of real and simulated 2-colour microarray data that were distributed among participants. The real data consisted of 48 microarrays from a disease challenge experiment in dairy cattle, while the simulated data consisted of 10 microarrays from a direct comparison of two treatments (dye-balanced). While there was broader agreement with regards to methods of microarray normalisation and significance testing, there were major differences with regards to quality control. The quality control approaches varied from none, through using statistical weights, to omitting a large number of spots or omitting entire slides. Surprisingly, these very different approaches gave quite similar results when applied to the simulated data, although not all participating groups analysed both real and simulated data. The workshop was very successful in facilitating interaction between scientists with a diverse background but a common interest in microarray analyses.

The aim of this paper was to describe, and when possible compare, the multivariate methods used by the participants in the EADGENE WP1.4 workshop. The first approach was for class discovery and class prediction using evidence from the data at hand. Several teams used hierarchical clustering (HC) or principal component analysis (PCA) to identify groups of differentially expressed genes with a similar expression pattern over time points and infective agent (E. coli or S. aureus). The main result from these analyses was that HC and PCA were able to separate tissue samples taken at 24 h following E. coli infection from the other samples. The second approach identified groups of differentially co-expressed genes, by identifying clusters of genes highly correlated when animals were infected with E. coli but not correlated more than expected by chance when the infective pathogen was S. aureus. The third approach looked at differential expression of predefined gene sets. Gene sets were defined based on information retrieved from biological databases such as Gene Ontology. Based on these annotation sources the teams used either the GlobalTest or the Fisher exact test to identify differentially expressed gene sets. The main result from these analyses was that gene sets involved in immune defence responses were differentially expressed.

Selective DNA pooling is an efficient method to identify chromosomal regions that harbor quantitative trait loci (QTL) by comparing marker allele frequencies in pooled DNA from phenotypically extreme individuals. Currently used single marker analysis methods can detect linkage of markers to a QTL but do not provide separate estimates of QTL position and effect, nor do they utilize the joint information from multiple markers. In this study, two interval mapping methods for analysis of selective DNA pooling data were developed and evaluated. One was based on least squares regression (LS-pool) and the other on approximate maximum likelihood (ML-pool). Both methods simultaneously utilize information from multiple markers and multiple families and can be applied to different family structures (half-sib, F2 cross and backcross). The results from these two interval mapping methods were compared with results from single marker analysis by simulation. The results indicate that both LS-pool and ML-pool provided greater power to detect the QTL than single marker analysis. They also provide separate estimates of QTL location and effect. With large family sizes, both LS-pool and ML-pool provided similar power and estimates of QTL location and effect as selective genotyping. With small family sizes, however, the LS-pool method resulted in severely biased estimates of QTL location for distal QTL but this bias was reduced with the ML-pool.

Microarrays allow researchers to measure the expression of thousands of genes in a single experiment. Before statistical comparisons can be made, the data must be assessed for quality and normalisation procedures must be applied, of which many have been proposed. Methods of comparing the normalised data are also abundant, and no clear consensus has yet been reached. The purpose of this paper was to compare those methods used by the EADGENE network on a very noisy simulated data set. With the a priori knowledge of which genes are differentially expressed, it is possible to compare the success of each approach quantitatively. Use of an intensity-dependent normalisation procedure was common, as was correction for multiple testing. Most variety in performance resulted from differing approaches to data quality and the use of different statistical tests. Very few of the methods used any kind of background correction. A number of approaches achieved a success rate of 95% or above, with relatively small numbers of false positives and negatives. Applying stringent spot selection criteria and elimination of data did not improve the false positive rate and greatly increased the false negative rate. However, most approaches performed well, and it is encouraging that widely available techniques can achieve such good results on a very noisy data set.

Differentiated quality and respect for the environment seem to be linked implicitly, but there is no demonstration of this concept for pig production. Pig production takes on different forms. Conventional pig production occurs side by side with some productions of “differentiated qualities” that are encouraged by the European Union as well as by nations. At the same time, the EU and nations are imposing environmental limitations concerning, for instance, the management of nitrogen and respect for neighbours. Here, we compared environmental impacts of 3 types of production: conventional production, organic production and free-range production. We took into account the process performances of 21 farms in the Walloon Region, Belgium. We compared the global process performances by multicriteria analysis. A jury of 16 experts was questioned to assign a relative importance to the emissions of ammonia, greenhouse gases, molecular nitrogen, odour and nitrogen to effluents. We found that the highest weighting was assigned to the N content of effluents, then to odour diffusion, the emission of ammonia, the emissions of greenhouse gas and finally, the emission of molecular nitrogen got a weak weighting. Our results showed that the relative ordering obtained was: (1) free-range production, (2) organic production and (3) conventional production. Nevertheless, within every sample a significant variability in the performances was observed. The same method applied within every sample enabled the creation of sub-groups. After reordering, we found that the most effective farms of every system of production were classified as top of the class. Thus, our original approach showed that on average the production of differentiated qualities was more environmentally effective than the conventional production. However, the variability of the performances within a system of production was high and it was quite possible for the conventional farms to reach results comparable with those of the best organic and free-range operations.

High-impact chemical biocides are no longer used in crop production systems due to environmental concerns and sustainable agricultural practices must involve the use of environmentally friendlier alternatives for controlling pests and diseases. We compared the effect of two disinfestation treatments, solarization and metham sodium, combined with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices, the saprophytic fungus Trichoderma aureoviride and the plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria Bacillus subtilis, in strawberry crop production. Also, the effects of high temperatures achieved during the solarization process on the viability of mycorrhizal inocula were evaluated under controlled conditions in a laboratory study. Moist inocula of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus G. intraradices were maintained for three hours for five consecutive days at 35, 40, 45, 50 and 55 °C, respectively. Our results show that soil solarization and metham-sodium disinfestation improved strawberry yield by 24% and 18%, respectively, compared with the fruit yield obtained in untreated soil, whereas application of T. aureoviride and B. subtilis did not affect plant production in the absence of a pathological agent. Solarization and metham-sodium application did not eliminate the natural populations of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and at the end of the experiment all plants, independently of the treatments, were mycorrhizal. After the heating treatments, under controlled conditions, the inoculum of G. intraradices submitted to 50 °C completely lost its mycorrhizal potential.

Since feed conversion ratio (FCR) is higher in slow-growing "Label Rouge" chickens than in broiler chickens, it is important to work on its improvement in this breed. However, this involves rearing animals in cages (C), an environment very different from that used for selection (in floor pens, S) and production (outdoor, E). The aim of this study was to evaluate the importance of genotype by environment (G × E) interactions between S, C, and E environments, to find the best way to select for FCR, using 2002 related animals. Growth curve parameters were estimated and body composition measured. Individual feed conversion ratios (FCR) were recorded between 8 and 10 weeks in C. The presence of G × E interactions was assessed by the genetic correlations between the same trait recorded in different environments. Moderate but significant G × E interactions were detected for carcass traits, a significant one was observed between E and S or C for growth curve parameters but none between C and S. If G × E interactions are set aside, i.e. selecting on traits recorded in C, abdominal fatness is the best indirect selection criterion for FCR but if they are taken in account then leg yield or growth curve parameters in S and growth curve parameters in E are better.