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Communication has been identified as one constraint for cattle veterinarians to act as proactive health consultants. Motivational Interviewing (MI), an evidence-based client-centered communication methodology, may therefore be a useful tool in veterinary herd health management (VHHM). The aim of this exploratory study was to investigate associations between training in MI and different measures of performance in VHHM. MI skills of 36 Swedish cattle veterinarians randomly assigned to two groups - MI veterinarians (n = 18) who had received six-months training in MI and control veterinarians (n = 18) who were not trained - were assessed using the MI Treatment Integrity coding system. Skills were categorized as untrained, trained_poor, trained_near moderate and trained_moderate. Veterinarians each visited two to six cattle farms for VHHM consultations and revisited the same farms three to six months later to document implementation of recommendations. A gamma model and logistic or ordered logistic regression models were used to evaluate associations between MI training and performance measured as: a) proportion of consultations resulting in written herd health plans, b) proportion of recommended measures fully or partially implemented, c) Likert scores of different estimates of client satisfaction and d) total time during 6 months allocated to VHHM visits on cattle farms. We found no evidence of any significant effects of MI training on the eight performance variables analyzed. However, a pattern of numerically higher values (better performance) in trained veterinarians with poor or moderate MI skills than in untrained veterinarians was observed in most variables. Clients were highly satisfied with veterinarians’ attitude, competence and time efficiency. Farms implemented a median of 66.7% (interquartile range: 50–100) of the measures partially or fully. Veterinarians allocated little time to VHHM visits (median: 2.2; interquartile range: 0.65–4.1 h per week of full-time work within cattle). Veterinarians with moderate skills spent 2.14 times more time on VHHM visits than untrained veterinarians, but the confidence interval was wide (0.88–5.21). The pattern of numerically higher values in trained veterinarians supported findings from other studies in the same project indicating a positive effect of MI training on VHHM. Our observations suggest a considerable potential to increase veterinarians’ engagement in VHHM.

Little is known about the drivers of critically important antibacterial resistance in species with zoonotic potential present on farms (e.g. CTX-M β-lactamase-positive Escherichia coli). We collected samples - monthly, between January 2017 and December 2018 - on 53 dairy farms in South West England along with data for 610 variables concerning antibacterial usage, management practices and meteorological factors. We detected E. coli resistant to amoxicillin, ciprofloxacin, streptomycin and tetracycline, respectively, in 2754/4145 (66%), 263/4145 (6%), 1475/4145 (36%) and 2874/4145 (69%) of all samples from faecally contaminated on-farm and near-farm sites. E. coli positive for blaCTX-M were detected in 224/4145 (5.4%) of samples. Multilevel, multivariable logistic regression showed antibacterial dry cow therapeutic choice (including use of cefquinome or framycetin) to be associated with higher odds of blaCTX-M positivity. Low average monthly ambient temperature was associated with lower odds of blaCTX-ME. coli positivity in samples and with lower odds of finding E. coli resistant to each of the four test antibacterials. This was additional to the effect of temperature on total E. coli density. Furthermore, samples collected close to calves had higher odds of having E. coli resistant to each antibacterial as well as positive for blaCTX-M Samples collected on pastureland had lower odds of having E. coli resistant to amoxicillin or tetracycline as well as lower odds of being positive for blaCTX-MImportance Antibacterial resistance poses a significant threat to human and animal health and global food security. Surveillance for resistance on farms is important for many reasons, including to track the impacts of interventions aimed at reducing the prevalence of resistance. In this longitudinal survey of dairy farm antibacterial resistance, we showed that local temperature - as it changes over the course of a year - was associated with the prevalence of antibacterial-resistant E. coli We also showed that prevalence of resistant E. coli was lower on pastureland and higher in environments inhabited by young animals. These findings have profound implications for routine surveillance and for surveys carried out for research. They provide important evidence that sampling at a single time-point and/or single location on a farm is unlikely to be adequate to accurately determine the status of the farm regarding the presence of samples containing resistant E. coli.

Objectives The objective of this study was to identify the mechanisms of cefotaxime resistance (CTX-R) in 1226 Escherichia coli from 4581 environmental samples collected on 53 dairy farms over a 2-year period in South West England and to characterise a bla CTX-M-32 -producing plasmid, pMOO-32, found to be widely distributed. Methods CTX-R isolates were identified using MIC breakpoint agar plates. β-lactamase genes of interest (GOIs) were detected by PCR. WGS was performed and analysed using the Center for Genomic Epidemiology platform. A plasmid-specific multiplex PCR was designed to indicate the presence of plasmid pMOO-32. Results Amongst 1226 CTX-R isolates, PCR identified bla CTX-M group 1 (549 isolates), bla CTX-M group 9 (100 isolates), bla CMY (12 isolates), bla DHA (1 isolate) and no GOI (566 isolates). WGS analysis of 184 representative isolates identified bla CTX-M (131 isolates; encoding CTX-M-1, -14, -15, -32 and the novel variant, CTX-M-214), bla CMY-2 (6 isolates), bla DHA-1 (one isolate) and presumed AmpC-hyperproduction in 46 isolates that were PCR negative for GOIs. A highly conserved plasmid was identified in 73 isolates, representing 27 E. coli STs. This ∼220 kb IncHI2 plasmid carrying bla CTX-M-32 was designated pMOO-32, was found to be stable in cattle and human transconjugant E. coli even in the absence of selective pressure, and was found by multiplex PCR to be present on 26/53 study farms. Conclusions β-lactamases capable of conferring resistance to third generation cephalosporins were evident on 47/53 farms within this study. This was largely because of the widespread dissemination of an IncHI2 plasmid carrying bla CTX-M-32 .

Little is known about the drivers of critically important antibacterial resistance in species with zoonotic potential present on farms (e.g. CTX-M β-lactamase-positive Escherichia coli ). There is also debate about the influence of farms on the circulation of resistance in local human populations. This was a two-year surveillance study on 53 dairy farms. E. coli positive for bla CTX-M were detected in 224/4145 (5.4%) of all samples from faecally-contaminated sites. E. coli positive for bla CTX-M were more prevalent (98/631; 15.5%) in calf samples and less prevalent (12/630; 1.9%) in samples collected from pastureland, including publicly accessible sites. Multilevel, multivariable logistic regression showed antibiotic dry cow therapeutic choice to be associated with risk of bla CTX-M positivity, including use of cefquinome or framycetin; 74% of bla CTX-M -positive E. coli were framycetin-resistant. Low temperature was associated with low risk of bla CTX-M positivity. This was additional to the effect of temperature on total E. coli density, a finding with profound implications for surveillance. There was no evidence that study farms had a significant impact on circulating bla CTX-M plasmids in the local human population: across 296 fully sequenced E. coli isolates, two cattle isolates shared bla CTX-M plasmids with eight urinary isolates collected in parallel.

In-depth interviews with veterinarians and farmers exploring on-farm change suggest enactment of veterinary advice requires more than accuracy of advisory content. A relational context of trust, shared veterinarian-farmer understanding and meaningful interpretation of advice at a local (farmer) level is critical to promote a culture of change. Veterinarians concerned about advisory engagement should focus on eliciting and integrating farmer priorities, motivations and goals. This collaborative communication can encourage selection of appropriate, efficacious and timely veterinary expertise, leading to better integration and adoption of advice on farm.