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The Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model is widely employed in ecological and geographical studies to predict potential distribution of species with high accuracy. In this research, we applied an optimized MaxEnt model to forecast the historical, current, and future distribution trends of Rhus chinensis. Our study elucidated the dynamics of species distribution shifts and pinpointed key environmental drivers. The analysis indicated that the min temperature of coldest month, temperature annual range, annual precipitation, and slope predominantly influence the distribution of R. chinensis in the current period. Notably, the most suitable habitat areas for R. chinensis exhibited significant variations across different time periods. During the Mid Holocene, as climate change, the extent of potential suitable habitats expanded markedly relative to the Last Glacial Maximum, showcasing distinct geographical distribution shifts. Under various future climate scenarios, the area deemed suitable for R. chinensis is expected to expand, with the total areas of high suitability increasing more under high-emission scenarios than under low-emission scenarios. The model also identified small, highly suitable areas in Motuo and Chayu in southern Xizang, suggesting new opportunities for the collection and cultivation of R. chinensis. These predictions support efforts to strengthen the conservation of existing resources and promote the sustainable utilization of China's medicinal plant resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract [Objective] This study aims to explore the flowering characteristics and flower fragrance components and their release patterns of Rhus chinensis, so as to provide a basis for further development and utilization of floral fragrance of R. chinensis. [Methods] Scanning electron microscope was used to observe pollen morphology. Headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) techniques were used to analyze the main floral scent components in different flowering stages and daily change pattern. [Results] A total of 92 floral substances (29 terpenes, 19 aldehydes, 15 esters, 14 alcohols, 5 ketones, 4 olefins, 2 aromatic hydrocarbons, and 1 each of phenols, alkanes, acids, and others) were detected in different flowering periods. Its relative content was increased and then decreased, reaching a maximum (3.60 μg/g) at the full-flowering stage, with significant differences among the flowering stages. A total of 84 floral aroma substances were detected during full flowering stage. The release showed a parabolic daily variation trend, which was higher during the day than at night and reached the maximum at 18:00 (4.80 μg/g), and then continued to decrease and reached the lowest at 6:00, with 2.58 μg/g. Terpenes were the main floral substances of R. chinensis, with a relative content of about 70% of the total floral components. [Conclusion] R. chinensis is rich in floral components, with a clear diurnal rhythm. Terpenes are its main floral substances.

Copyright of Journal of Taiwan Agricultural Research is the property of Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute, Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Hypertension is the crucial modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, and efforts to identify functional foods that are effective for hypertension control are increasing. The nutgall tree (NT, Rhus chinensis Mill.) is used in traditional medicine and food because of its medicinal value. However, the role of NT in hypertension has not been investigated. Therefore, the hypotensive effect of NT leaf ethanol extract (NTE) was investigated in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). SHRs were allocated to three groups (control, 300, or 1000 mg/kg NTE), and blood pressure was measured before and after oral administration. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure significantly decreased in the NTE 1000 mg/kg group and was the lowest at 2 h after administration (−26.4 ± 10.3, −33.5 ± 9.8%, respectively). Daily NTE administration for five days also resulted in a similar effect. Further, the vasorelaxant effects and related mechanisms were investigated in the aortas of Sprague Dawley rats. NTE showed the dose-dependent blood-vessel-relaxing effect, and its mechanism involves the NO-sGC-cGMP pathway, activation of K+ channels, and reduction in the vasoconstrictive action of angiotensin II. Therefore, our study provides basic data indicating the potential use of NTE as a functional food for high blood pressure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Two new baccharane triterpenes, 17,24-epoxy-23-en-baccharan-3-one (1) and 17,24(S)-epoxy-25-en-21-hydroxy-baccharan-3-one (2) were isolated from Rhus chinensis Mill. The structures were established on the basis of UV, IR, HR-ESI-MS, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, silver nanoparticles were synthesized using aqueous root and leaf extracts of Rhus chinensis Mill. This study aimed to undertake the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles utilizing plant extracts in an eco-friendly, cost-effective, and more efficient manner with its antibacterial application. The prepared silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were characterized by using different techniques. Such as ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy (UV–Vis), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), x-ray diffraction spectroscopy (XRD), field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX). The color changes from yellowish to reddish brown can be visualized and it indicates the formation of silver nanoparticles. The UV–Vis absorption peak shown by the synthesized AgNPs assisted by root and leaf extract was at 443 nm and 440 nm respectively. The functional group present in plants' secondary metabolites may act as capping and stabilizing agents, indicated by the shifting and disappearing of the peak in the plant extracts and the extracts-assisted synthetic nanoparticles. The crystallite size of synthesized AgNPs assisted by the root and leaf extracts of Rhus cinensis was found to be 11.01 nm and 13.39 nm respectively, while with the help of FE-SEM image the shape and particle size of synthesized AgNPs root and leaf extract was found spherical with particle diameter of 54.40 nm and 30.89 nm respectively. The presence of an intense silver component was confirmed by EDX analysis which showed an intense peak at around 3 Kev and other elements like Cl, O, C, and N were also reported in synthesized AgNPs. Both the plant extracts assisted synthesized AgNPs showed higher zones of inhibition (ZOI) against both the Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The results of the study indicate the potential benefit of synthesized silver nanoparticles using Rhus chinensis root and leaf extracts for biomedical purposes.

Abstract Background Galla chinensis is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) produced due to the interaction between the Fordinae aphids and the Rhus plant species. Horned galls with high tannin content are the most widely cultivated gall type, and Wufeng county of Hubei province in China is the center of cultivation. However, long-term artificial cultivation and domestication of horned galls to meet the increasing production demand have led to quality degradation. Understanding the reasons underlying quality degradation is urgent for horned gall production and application. The present study used a combination of metabolic, genetic, and ecological analyses to investigate the quality and genetic differentiation of the horned galls under long-term domestication as well as the potential relationships between them. Results Analysis of gallic acid content and other three phenotypic traits (fresh weight, gall size, and wall thickness) revealed quality differentiation of horned galls collected from five locations in Wufeng, in which the cultivated samples from Wang Jiaping (WJP) showed the highest degradation. Genetic differentiation between the cultivated and wild Rhus chinensis trees in WJP, and between WJP and the other populations was detected based on SSR molecular markers, however, no significant difference in genetic structure was seen for the aphid populations. Among the various ecological factors examined, temperature was identified as the primary one affecting the quality of horned galls. Conclusions Both genetic and ecological factors caused quality differentiation of horned galls. The collection of diverse germplasm of host trees and aphids will help reduce the quality degradation of horned galls in Wufeng.

In this experiment, three kinds of shading intensity and four kinds of soil matrix were used to carry out plug seeding and seedling test to study the effects of different treatments on the germination rate and germination potential of Rhus chinensis seeds. The results showed that MLI (a layer of 4 needles black sunshade net, shade 50%-60%) and mixed soil environment (sand ∶ humus = 3 ∶ 1) had the best effect on the germination of seeds, and the germination rate and germination potential reached 80. 83% and 40. 83%, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Galla chinensis is a traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) produced due to the interaction between the Fordinae aphids and the Rhus plant species. Horned galls with high tannin content are the most widely cultivated gall type, and Wufeng county of Hubei province in China is the center of cultivation. However, long-term artificial cultivation and domestication of horned galls to meet the increasing production demand have led to quality degradation. Understanding the reasons underlying quality degradation is urgent for horned gall production and application. The present study used a combination of metabolic, genetic, and ecological analyses to investigate the quality and genetic differentiation of the horned galls under long-term domestication as well as the potential relationships between them. Results: Analysis of gallic acid content and other three phenotypic traits (fresh weight, gall size, and wall thickness) revealed quality differentiation of horned galls collected from five locations in Wufeng, in which the cultivated samples from Wang Jiaping (WJP) showed the highest degradation. Genetic differentiation between the cultivated and wild Rhus chinensis trees in WJP, and between WJP and the other populations was detected based on SSR molecular markers, however, no significant difference in genetic structure was seen for the aphid populations. Among the various ecological factors examined, temperature was identified as the primary one affecting the quality of horned galls. Conclusions: Both genetic and ecological factors caused quality differentiation of horned galls. The collection of diverse germplasm of host trees and aphids will help reduce the quality degradation of horned galls in Wufeng. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key message: An efficient micropropagation procedure for Rhus chinensis was developed using root segment-derived juvenile shoots as the source of materials through multiple shoot induction and hydroponic acclimation. Rhus chinensis Mill. is an economically important multipurpose tree in the Anacardiaceae that has a wide range of medicinal, ornamental, and industrial values. Here, an efficient micropropagation procedure for R. chinensis was developed using leaves, nodal segments, and petioles of juvenile shoots obtained from root segments as explants. The highest shoot induction frequency (100%) with a mean number of shoots (20.0 ± 0.9) was obtained when in vitro nodal segments were cultured on MS medium supplemented with 0.2 mg l−1 TDZ. The shoot clusters were transferred to medium containing 0.2 mg l−1 TDZ and 0.1 mg l−1 NAA for multiplication, and shoot elongation was observed on medium with 0.2 mg l−1 6-BA and 0.2 mg l−1 GA3. The highest rooting frequency (91.1%) was achieved on 1/4 MS medium fortified with 2.0 mg l−1 NAA. The major challenge of the low transplantation survival rate of regenerated plants was solved by adopting an ex vitro hydroponic acclimation system. This is the first report on the propagation of R. chinensis through direct shoot organogenesis and hydroponic acclimation. The present procedure provides a novel method for the large-scale propagation and germplasm conservation of R. chinensis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hypertension is the crucial modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, and efforts to identify functional foods that are effective for hypertension control are increasing. The nutgall tree (NT, Rhus chinensis Mill.) is used in traditional medicine and food because of its medicinal value. However, the role of NT in hypertension has not been investigated. Therefore, the hypotensive effect of NT leaf ethanol extract (NTE) was investigated in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). SHRs were allocated to three groups (control, 300, or 1000 mg/kg NTE), and blood pressure was measured before and after oral administration. Systolic and diastolic blood pressure significantly decreased in the NTE 1000 mg/kg group and was the lowest at 2 h after administration (−26.4 ± 10.3, −33.5 ± 9.8%, respectively). Daily NTE administration for five days also resulted in a similar effect. Further, the vasorelaxant effects and related mechanisms were investigated in the aortas of Sprague Dawley rats. NTE showed the dose-dependent blood-vessel-relaxing effect, and its mechanism involves the NO-sGC-cGMP pathway, activation of K+ channels, and reduction in the vasoconstrictive action of angiotensin II. Therefore, our study provides basic data indicating the potential use of NTE as a functional food for high blood pressure.

This study examined changes in the ionome of Rhus chinensis in response to Pb stress so as to understand Pb phytotoxicity-related processes and provide theoretical support for improving the efficiency of this plant in remediating heavy metal-polluted soils. Rhus chinensis seedlings were cultured in pots with soil. The concentrations of 12 elements in the roots, stems, and leaves of the seedlings under treatments of 0, 500, and 1000 mg·kg−1 Pb(NO3)2 were determined. Principal component analysis (PCA), correlation analysis, and partial least squares path modeling (PLS-PM) were used to analyze the contributions of the affected elements in the ionomes of different organs of the seedlings under Pb stress. PCA showed that 74% of the total ionome variation was caused by the difference in organ types. N, Mg, K, Cu, Ca, and Zn were the important elements contributing to the variation of the ionome. Pb disturbed the ionome of different organs at varying levels, and the order of the interference levels between the organs was: stem > root > leaf. Correlation analysis showed that biomass had a significant positive correlation with N and K and a significant negative correlation with Pb, Mn, and the C:N ratio. Stem biomass had a significant positive correlation with Ca, Cu, and the N:P ratio. Root biomass had a significant negative correlation with the C:P ratio. PLS-PM analysis indicated that Pb stress had a major, direct, and inhibitory effect on biomass. The variation of ionomic profiles caused by Pb stress was mainly caused by the difference in organ types; the variation of the ionomic profiles of each organ was mainly caused by Pb stress. The elements that caused the variation of ionomic profiles varied with organ types, and the plant biomass was directly affected by a strong Pb poisoning effect and indirectly affected by a weak ionomic profile variation effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Algal infestation in Korean lakes, rivers, and in agroecosystems is a catastrophic problem resulting in contaminated drinking and agricultural irrigation water. Developing allelochemical-based algicides has previously faced difficulties, including dosage requirements and chemical instability. Despite these challenges, these algicides have enormous potential for eco-friendly use. This study presents the efficient use of tannin derivatives as antialgal chemicals modeled on a tannin-rich stem extract of Rhus chinensis in a thermal processing application. RESULTS: Tannic acids are the key component of algal necrosis in R. chinensis stem extract, and although heat extraction from the stem increased the crude extraction yield 1.8-fold, the procedure induced the conversion of tannic acids to gallic acid, resulting in lower antialgal activity. Gallotannin showed stronger antialgal activity (The 50% lethal dosage (LD50)= 44.6 mg L−1) than gallic acid (LD50 = 99.2 mg L−1), and the nonheated extract exhibited 3.7-fold lower LD50 (0.66 g L−1) than the heated extract (LD50 = 2.45 g L−1), resulting in 2.6-fold higher content of gallotannin. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that heat treatment of R. chinensis stems during the extraction process is not beneficial to algal control because of the acceleration of thermal tannin degradation, despite it showing higher crude extract yields. Therefore, it is suggested extraction processes minimizing the loss of tannic acids should be the preferred methods used to develop tannin-based natural algicides for controlling algal infestation. Tannic acids showed higher toxicity into necrosis of M. aeruginosa than gallic acid where heat-processed extraction of R. chinensis stems produces more gallic acid content resulting in thermal degradation of tannic complexes than the extraction of nonthermal treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

DELLA proteins are a class of negative regulator of gibberellin signaling pathway and involved in diverse aspects of plant growth and development. However, the functions of DELLA homologous genes are largely unknown in Rhus chinensis. In this study, the full-length cDNA of RcGAI1L was isolated by reverse transcription (RT-PCR) method, which encoded 264 amino acids. Sequence analysis indicated that RcGAI1L only contained GRAS domain and amino acid sequence shared high identity with other plant species. Phylogenetic analysis showed that R. chinensis was the most closely related to Solanum pennellii. Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis demonstrated that the expression of RcGAI1L was significantly down-regulated from the initial to terminal stage of gall development. The expression level of RcGAI1L was highest in leaf without gall, and lowest in galled leaf. Correlation analysis revealed that the expression of RcGAI1L was negatively correlated with GA content and gall volume. In addition, overexpression RcGAI1L in Arabidopsis led to a clear reduction in plant height, dry height, stem diameter, and delayed flowering compared to the wild-type plants. Taken together, these results suggest that RcGAI1L may negatively regulate GA response to affect gall development. This study provides new insights into the function of RcGAI1L gene in GA signaling and contributes to reveal the molecular regulatory mechanism of gall development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sumac Rhus chinensis Mill. is an economically and ecologically important shrub or tree species in the family of Anacardiaceae with a wide distribution in East to Southeast Asia. We assembled the complete chloroplast genome of 159,187 bp in length and the GC content of 37.8%. The genome encoded 132 genes, including 86 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNA genes, 8 rRNA genes, and 1 pseudogene, and 77 SSRs were identified as well as the interval regions, totaling 46,425 bp in length. The mauve alignment revealed one gene rearrangement among the Rhus species. All the SSRs were divided into five types, most of which consisted of mono- and tri- repeat motifs. Our genome exhibited the longest size and more annotated genes compared to the three other genomes of R. chinensis reported in GenBank. We also discovered some relatively highly variable regions in the complete chloroplast genomes of the Rhus species. The ML phylogenetic analysis of the available chloroplast sequences of the Anacardiaceae well supported the monophyly of each tribe and each genus; the tribe Rhoideae was close to the tribe Anacardiaceae with a high support of 100%, and they then grouped with the tribe Spondiadeae. R. chinensis was sister to R. potaninii, and they then grouped with the species R. typhina. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To explore the origin and evolution of local flora and vegetation, we examined the evolutionary history of Rhus chinensis, which is widely distributed in China’s temperate and subtropical zones, by sequencing three maternally inherited chloroplast DNAs (cpDNA: trnL-trnF, psbA-trnH, and rbcL) and the biparentally inherited nuclear DNA (nuDNA: LEAFY) from 19 natural populations of R. chinensis as well as the ecological niche modeling. In all, 23 chloroplast haplotypes (M1–M23) and 15 nuclear alleles (N1–N15) were detected. The estimation of divergence time showed that the most recent common ancestor dated at 4.2 ± 2.5 million years ago (Mya) from cpDNA, and the initial divergence of genotypes occurred at 4.8 ± 3.6 Mya for the nuDNA. Meanwhile, the multimodality mismatch distribution curves and positive Tajima’s D values indicated that R. chinensis did not experience population expansion after the last glacial maximum. Besides, our study was also consistent with the hypothesis that most refugia in the temperate and subtropical zones of China were in situ during the glaciation.

Rhus chinensis Mill. is a wild medicinal plant found in Sikkim Himalaya, which yields edible fruits. The juice concentrate from the fruits is used traditionally for the cure of various gastric disorders. The present study was carried out to analyze the phytochemical and nutraceutical constituents of the fruits of R. chinensis and to see whether the antioxidant properties are related to these constituents. Proximate and nutritional analyses were performed by the AOAC methods. Lycopene and β-carotene were estimated by the method of Nagata and Yamashita. Total phenolics was calculated in terms of gallic acid equivalents and total flavonoids as well as flavonol contents were calculated as rutin equivalents using standard methods. Antioxidant capacity was determined by DPPH, ABTS, Hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity and total antioxidant activity. Mineral contents were determined using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES). The findings reveal the presence of a very high content of phenolics, flavonoids, vitamin C and dietary fibres in addition to the appreciable amounts of lipids, total carbohydrates and calorific value. The fruit extracts prepared in water, ethyl acetate and aqueous methanol exhibited strong antioxidant activity in different assays. Solvent and assay specific variations were evident. The fruits also contained high levels of micro- and macro elements. The study supports the medicinal and nutritional value of Rhus chinensis. The medicinal properties exhibited by the fruit extracts may be due to its strong antioxidant properties and the antioxidant properties in turn may be due to the presence of appreciable level of secondary metabolites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Agro-Environment Science is the property of Journal of Agro-Environment Science Editorial Board and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The sumac species Rhus chinensis is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. APX is the key enzyme in hydrogen peroxide degradation, and may have a critical function in plant-aphid interactions. Both the cDNA and genomic sequences encoding the APX protein in R. chinensis (termed RcAPX) underwent cloning. The 1938 bp RcAPX gene encompassed 6 introns and 7 exons. The open reading frame of RcAPX was 750 bp and encoded a 249-amino acid peptide. Based on sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis, RcAPX was shown to be cytosolic. Sequence alignment revealed that RcAPX shared 54.1–75.7% identity with APX sequences reported in other plant species. Quantitative real-time PCR showed differential expression of RcAPX mRNA in different tissues at various developmental stages. Moreover, RcAPX expression was significantly suppressed by galls. To further assess its function, RcAPX was produced in E. coli using the pET-28a plasmid, and the recombinant peptide showed high APX activity. The optimum temperature and pH for RcAPX activity were 60 °C and 8.5. To confirm the substrate binding sites and active sites of RcAPX, site-directed mutagenesis studies were performed. The present study firstly described a full-length APX gene in the family Anacardiaceae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To explore the origin and evolution of local flora and vegetation, we examined the evolutionary history of Rhus chinensis , which is widely distributed in China's temperate and subtropical zones, by sequencing three maternally inherited chloroplast DNAs (cpDNA: trn L -trn F, psb A- trn H, and rbc L) and the biparentally inherited nuclear DNA (nuDNA: LEAFY) from 19 natural populations of R. chinensis as well as the ecological niche modeling. In all, 23 chloroplast haplotypes (M1–M23) and 15 nuclear alleles (N1–N15) were detected. The estimation of divergence time showed that the most recent common ancestor dated at 4.2 ± 2.5 million years ago (Mya) from cpDNA, and the initial divergence of genotypes occurred at 4.8 ± 3.6 Mya for the nuDNA. Meanwhile, the multimodality mismatch distribution curves and positive Tajima's D values indicated that R. chinensis did not experience population expansion after the last glacial maximum. Besides, our study was also consistent with the hypothesis that most refugia in the temperate and subtropical zones of China were in situ during the glaciation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Horned gall is named after its shape of irregular diamond, and is induced by the fluid-feeding aphid Schlechtendalia chinensis (Bell) attacks on the leaflets that are located in the branchlets of Rhus chinensis Mill., which is enriched in gallotannin and can be widely used in medicine and the food industry. To explain the molecular mechanism of gall development, we performed transcriptome analysis by Illumina deep sequencing and digital gene expression of four tissues, including galls, leaves that grew on the same branch as the gall taken (GL), leaves from a branch without any gall (LW), and leaves from a tree without any gall (CL). Differentially expressed genes abundantly enriched in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, plant–aphid interactions, and plant hormone signal transduction were highly expressed in galls compared with GL and LW. Phytohormone signal transduction, dominated by IAA and ABA, coordinates primary and secondary metabolism and thus induces gall induction and development after attack by aphids. This study provides a theoretical basis for the genetic improvement and processing of gallnut resources.

Copyright of Forest Research is the property of Forest Research Editorial Office and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Rhus chinensis Mill. (Anacardiaceae) has been reported as a new record for the flora of Turkey. Detailed morphological description and leaf anatomical properties are provided. Capitate glandular and nonglandular trichomes, and also epicuticle hairs have been observed in the leaf surfaces of R. chinensis. Fruit micromorphology and chromosome number of this species have also been evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rhus chinensis is an important economic species, which could provide raw materials for pharmaceutical and industrial dyes. This is the first report of R. chinensis chloroplast genomes by de novo sequencing. The results showed that the length of R. chinensis was 159,082 bp. The length of LSC and SSC was 85,394 bp and 18,663 bp, respectively. The genomes contained 126 genes, including 88 protein encoding genes, eight rRNA, and 30 tRNA genes. The clustering results showed that Anacardiaceae were closest to R. chinensis, followed by Aceraceae and Anacardiaceae.

Horned gall is named after its shape of irregular diamond, and is induced by the fluid-feeding aphidSchlechtendalia chinensis(Bell) attacks on the leaflets that are located in the branchlets ofRhus chinensisMill., which is enriched in gallotannin and can be widely used in medicine and the food industry. To explain the molecular mechanism of gall development, we performed transcriptome analysis by Illumina deep sequencing and digital gene expression of four tissues, including galls, leaves that grew on the same branch as the gall taken (GL), leaves from a branch without any gall (LW), and leaves from a tree without any gall (CL). Differentially expressed genes abundantly enriched in the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, plant–aphid interactions, and plant hormone signal transduction were highly expressed in galls compared with GL and LW. Phytohormone signal transduction, dominated by IAA and ABA, coordinates primary and secondary metabolism and thus induces gall induction and development after attack by aphids. This study provides a theoretical basis for the genetic improvement and processing of gallnut resources. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

We herein present a simple, clean, eco-friendly and inexpensive method for green synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) using water extract from galls of Rhus chinensis. In this study, the reactions were conducted at 50 °C for 15 min using a magnetic stirrer and water as a solvent. AuNP characterization was performed using ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, field-emission scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis. Element composition was detected via energy dispersive X-ray analysis. The possible presence of functional groups was analyzed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The synthesized AuNPs exhibited a color change to wine red and a UV-vis peak at 532 nm. The sizes of AuNPs ranged from 20 to 40 nm, and they had oval and spherical shapes. The cytotoxic effects against MKN-28 (Adenocarcinoma), Hep3B (Heptocellular carcinoma), and MG-63 (Osteosarcoma) cells were evaluated using tetrazolium-based assay. The AuNPs induced cytotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner, and morphology upon cell death was differentiated via fluorescent microscopy using 4,6-Diamidino-2-pheynylindole dihydrochloridehydrate staining which predicted apoptosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) has been proposed as a simple, eco-friendly and cost effective alternative to chemical and physical methods. The Rhus chinensis plant is one of the well studied medicinal plant and its galls find excellent clinical and therapeutic applications. The present study reports the use of water extract from galls of R. chinensis as a reducing agent and formation of AgNPs from silver nitrate solution by a green synthesis route. The AgNPs formation was observed visually by color change and the absorbance peak at 450 nm was observed by UV-Visible spectrophotometer. The shape, size, and morphology of synthesized AgNPs were monitored by transmission electron microscopy and field-emission scanning electron microscopy. The face centered cubic structure of AgNPs was confirmed by X-ray diffraction pattern and element composition by energy dispersive X-ray analysis. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy spectrum revealed that the presence of components acts as a reducing and capping agent. The antibacterial activity was performed using the agar well diffusion method. Minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration were determined by broth dilution and spread plate method respectively. Synthesized nanoparticles were spotted as triangular and hexagonal shape and the particle size was around 150 nm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]